What Are the Disadvantages of Computer Addiction free essay sample

The Soap Opera For Men Essay Research free essay sample

The Soap Opera For Men Essay, Research Paper The Soap Opera for Men Kaaaaplllowww! was the solitary sound heard as the Undertaker fell straightforwardly to the canvas. While the official was caught up with puttering with an uncovered, flawless steel turnbuckle on the correct side of the ring, little did he perceive what was going on in the lucifer. In the couple of moments that the arbitrator was distracted, Stone Cold Steve Austin figured out how to get a dark, metal divert uping seat from the edges of the ring and pummel the Undertaker over the caput with it. The group was voyaging entirely amuck and there was non an individual in the crowd that was plunking down any more. Undeniable, feeling that the terminal was close, concluded that it was clasp to finish the lucifer. He lifted the Undertaker up from the canvas and situated him in the in the middle of ring. The Undertaker, ledge ignorant to anything going on around him, remained there feebly alluring his weaponries in distress. We will compose a custom article test on The Soap Opera For Men Essay Research or on the other hand any comparative theme explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page Seconds therefore, Stone Cold squashed his caput with his finishing move known as The Stunner. Undeniable so got onto the canvas with the Undertaker and put his enormously solid arm over the Undertaker s chest signalizing a pin. For those of you who are new to names, for example, Stone Cold Steve Austin or The Undertaker, these are two of the most praised grapplers in proficient wrestle. The World Wrestling Federation is one of the more well known wrestle associations and is ordinarily alluded to as the WWF. A scene, for example, the one portrayed above is a marginally basic happening that has kept fans bolted at the outskirt of their seats for mature ages and keeps on making so. Despite the fact that non each lucifer follows such a heart-beating stride or have the most great realized grapplers included ; the WWF itself is an unpredictable association with numerous spaces of impact. The account lines in the midst of the blood surging activity are a worked in bit of the WWF. For the enthusiasm of effortlessness, the WWF can be thought to be a gathering of people ( some having a place with an impossible to miss gathering or scheme ) all trying to win one of six title belts. The invariable revamp of intra bunch confederations is a key constituent to the ever-changing mystery plan. A single, who you may dare to be your companion one moment, may betray you the next second and help with your destruction. A representation of such is evident when Vince McMahon ( previous WWF official ) out of nowhere turned on The Rock in a scene of Monday Night Raw. Vince McMahon, The Rock s assumed partner, should help The Rock as he went for WWF title belt against Hunter Hearst Helmsly. By the by, only something contrary to such stayed to be valid. Vince McMahon supported Hunter Hearst Helmsly and the crowd was in a territory of absolute surprise and bewilderment. Plot turns, for exa mple, this keep the story line new and fans simply craving for additional. Strife among people other than keeps the account line engaging. Undeniable Steve Austin and Rikishi have an on-going clash at this very moment and fans (, for example, myself ) superbly love it. Rikishi purportedly was the originator behind Stone Cold s crippling leg hurt. Undeniable has come back to the ring inside the past team of hebdomads and he s determined to raise a ruckus and counter no undertaking what the impacts perhaps. What goes about comes to fruition and all Rikishi s got coming his way is my clench hand down his pharynx, and that s the primary concern since Stone Cold said as much! is an ongoing quote from Stone Cold according to what he anticipates making to Rakishi. Plot turns and battle are worked in constituents to the story line and the WWF would non even remotely take after what it is today without it. A single appreciates the multifaceted and different account lines of the WWF for some grounds. A similarity of such can be contrasted with foam shows for grown-up females. A large number of grown-up females tune in each twenty-four hours to see whether John or Michael is the male parent of Melissa s darling or whether Mrs. Jones genuinely did hold a make a difference with her foreman. Men appreciate play just every piece much as grown-up females do, however how one characterizes the word play is the thing that isolates one sex signifier the other. For coevalss, work powers have appreciated viewing savage rivalry and rivalry. The WWF incorporates both of those by themselves characteristics and makes a rather intriguing play as the characters play out their few capacities in endeavors to win the ideal WWF title belts. The 100s of various characters are another aspect of the WWF I love. Running from the silly jokes of Stone Cold Steve Austin to the bursting conceit of The Rock, the WWF has everything. Undeniable Steve Austin is the American awful bum that covers up inside us all. He is the individual that speaks to what we all may want to make however make non hold the testicular mettle to make so. He speaks to choler, animosity, and non-congruity. The Rock is a greater amount of the individuals s title-holder. Continually hoping to amuse his fans and progress his situation among different grapplers. He speaks to big name, karma, and riches. The Undertaker, on the different manus, is a delegate of the clouded side. He speaks to perish and the great beyond. The decent variety of characters in the WWF keeps the activity from going equivalent with one another and that is something any full-hearted WWF fan will appreciate. The WWF has at any rate one character that we would all be able to agree with or pull for. The ground for such a variety of characters can be seen when expert wrestle was non each piece mainstream as it is today. It the late 1970ss and mid 1880ss, there were just a twelve or so grapplers and individuals at last got world-exhausted viewing similar individuals battle over and again. Dreariness is a neer something to be thankful for in the beguilement business and the WWF found that in the blink of an eye bounty. The covering moves are the most energizing part of the display of expert wrestle. When the resistance is worn out and fatigued, a completing move might be applied to finish the lucifer in way. Three of the most oculus beginning moves are The Stunner, The Rock Bottom, and The Tombstone. The Stunner is ascribed to Stone Cold Steve Austin. The main constituent of the move comprises of Stone Cold fiercely kicking his resistance in belly. At that point, while standing up to a similar the way as his resistance, he hooks his restriction s head while set over and wraps his sweat-soaked arm over it as he tumbles to the land while keeping his resistance s caput behind him. The power of the fall makes the resistance go oblivious and the lucifer is normally over each piece in the blink of an eye as Stone Cold goes for the pin. The People s Elbow, other than known as the most exciting move in games s history, is ascribed to The Rock. This move comprises of The Rock puting his restriction in the f ocal point of the ring. The Rock so runs from one of the terminal ring to the next lastly workss his cubitus directly on his restriction s chest as his full natural structure plunges to the canvas with the work stoppage of expire. Last, The Tombstone is handed out by The Undertaker. This move comprises of The Undertaker hurling his restriction topsy turvy while keeping him. The Undertaker so holds his restriction in this unsloped spot as the blood anxiously hurries to the caput to expand the size of the moving toward blow. The Undertaker so puts his resistance s caput ( which is still upside by the way ) between his thighs and blast his articulatio genuss to the land. Once more, the resistance is settled and the fan most loved adds another triumph to his repertory. The numerous constituents to a completing move are what make them so energizing to look for individuals the whole way across America. I d love to see the mean Joe endeavor to get another grown-up male who is around 300 lbs and toss him about like a pack of wash. The grapplers that play out these surprising tricks put mature ages of planning in their demonstration and that simply is non something that can just look nightlong. Physicality and timing are other than key to drawing the move away right. These devoted athletes put mature ages of troublesome work in the rec center and in the ring to execute their few moves to perfection. Genuine aficionados of the WWF acknowledge what troublesome work goes into these solitary moves and luxuriate them for these truly grounds. The ubiquity of expert wrestle is at all clasp high and the justification for such an event are clear. The WWF is an opportunity for us all to extricate up and luxuriate the lives of others, as our own may non be at the ideal region of continuum. The mind boggling account line, shocking cluster of characters, and finishing moves all ascribe to its deathless achievement. For those of you who some time or another make up ones psyche to try known to man of expert wresting, keep up this one spot of guidance in head as you progress up the chain of command to winning the WWF Championship belt. Utilize a steel seat at whatever point conceivable on the grounds that it would be tragic if individual like the Rock needed to take you to Know Your Roll Boulevard, walk you down Jabroni Drive, and investigate you legitimately into the Smackdown Hotel! 1.2.3 the official hollered for all to hear as he beat his manus on the canvas while numbering each back to back figure. The lucifer was finished and Stone Cold Steve Austin again left the ring winning.

Classes, by the Calories

Classes, by the Calories A few weeks ago, I attended a meeting for one of MIT’s many clubs. It was a lively meeting, full of introductions, discussions, and sandwiches. When the meeting ended, all but a few students left, taking the lively energy with them. The room was quiet. Then, suddenly, the quietness was broken by a series of buzzes and dings as our phones simultaneously received a notification. We sprinted together down the hallway to 10-250, one of MIT’s largest lecture halls. We emerged triumphant, carrying five huge tubs of Toscanini’s ice cream. Back in our original meeting room, we all sampled the different flavors, and a few people took the half-empty tubs back to their dorms to share with friends. free ice cream ^_^ Toscanini’s is one of Boston’s best ice cream stores. We managed to get five tubs (!) of free Toscanini’s through an MIT mailing list dedicated to notifying student subscribers about free food available on campus. That night, I was lucky â€" if I hadn’t happened to stay late in a classroom near 10-250, other students would have gotten there before I could. Last week, I had my first midterms. MIT has redefined the word midterm for me. In my high school, midterms happened once, in between the two semesters. Now, each of my classes has three or four midterms distributed throughout just one semester. The definition of midterm has also changed to include free food â€" I was surprised with free candy before two of my exams! Im taking four classes this semester: 3.091 (Chemistry), 8.01 (Physics), 18.02 (Calculus), and MAS.110 (Media Design). You can Google each of my classes and find the description (or even the entire course) online. So, instead of describing the content, I’ll tell you about my classes in terms of the free food I’ve received! Calories consumed, by stress level, in each class a. My wonderful 3.091 TA gave us chocolate chip cookies right after we had a quiz. (Thanks Sara!) In 3.091, we have weekly quizzes that involve using cool tools given to us in weekly goodie bags, such as a spectrometer or conductivity meter. b.  Right before the 3.091 midterms, the TAs handed out Hershey’s kisses. One of our questions involved chocolate production in some way, but I was so focused on solving the problem that I didn’t make a connection between the question and the Hershey’s kisses until writing this post. c. I was given a full-size Kit Kat just before the 8.01 midterm. It did not make the test easier, sadly. d. 18.02 has been food-less so far. It’s okay, because after class, I can walk right across the hallway to the Compton Lounge, where there is a seemingly unlimited supply of free bananas and hot beverages. e.  In MAS.110, each Friday we have a chill breakfast with fruits, donuts, muffins, and a variety of beverages. I’m taking this class as part Media Arts and Sciences (MAS), which is one of four first-year learning communities at MIT. MAS explores the intersection of technology and expression. Our classes and breakfasts are held in MIT’s (very cool) Media Lab. The line in the graph drops off quickly because this class is really relaxed â€" it’s just not possible for my stress level to get very high. If you like free food, you’ll love it here. If you don’t like free food, you’ll love it here, too â€" there is also a lot of food you can pay for. That’s for another blog, though.

Trying to Understand Dissassociative Identity Dissorder Essay

Trying to Understand Dissassociative Identity Dissorder Dissociative identity disorder, more commonly known as multiple personality disorder, is one of the most intriguing and least understood of mental disorders. The publication of Sybil in 1973 created a wave of public fascination and, more importantly, professional recognition of childhood physical and sexual abuse as precipitants of the disorder. Dissociative identity disorder is characterized by the presence of ...at least two separate ego states, or alters, different modes of being and feeling and acting that exist independently of each other, coming forth and being in control at different times (Davison and Neale 180). Each personality is fully integrated and a complex†¦show more content†¦By the same token, an abused child uses this defense to distance its mental self from its physical being. The child dissociates, or breaks the connection between his/her thoughts, feelings, and his/her very identity. The child becomes like a hidden observer (Alexander, et al. 94) wh o does not have to deal with the pain or fear of the attack. All thoughts and memories of the abuse are psychologically separated from the child. After repeated abuse, this dissociation becomes reinforced. If the child is good at it, he/she will use it as a defense mechanism in any situation that he/she perceives as threatening, and different personalities begin to develop. Trance-like behavior in children has been found to be the single best predictor of childhood dissociative identity disorder (Carlson, et al. 118). It has been documented that disassociative identity disorder can only develop during childhood, usually between the ages of 3 and 9. There is no adult onset disassociative identity disorder, due to the fact that ...only children have sufficient flexibility (and vulnerability) to respond to trauma by breaking their still coalescing self into different, dissociated parts (Rainbow House 2). It has also been found that only children who are highly susceptible to hypn osis are able to accomplish disassociative behavior. This is because a hypnotic state is very similar to the trance-like

Using the Spanish Adjective Grande

Grande is among the most common adjectives of Spanish and one of the first to be learned by students. Grande Meaning Large or Big The most common meaning of grande is simply big or large: Viven en una casa grande. (They live in a large house.)Mi nieta tiene las manos grandes como su padre. (My granddaughter has big hands like her father.) ¿Sabes cuà ¡l es la ciudad mà ¡s grande del paà ­s? (Do you know which city is the countrys largest?)Madrid es una ciudad grande. (Madrid is a large city.)El caà ±Ãƒ ³n mà ¡s grande del Sistema Solar està ¡ en Marte. (The biggest  canyon in the solar system is on Mars.)El estadio mà ¡s grande de tenis del mundo ya tiene techo retrà ¡ctil. (The worlds largest tennis stadium now has a retractable roof.) In context, grande can also refer specifically to height, rather than size per se: Era un hombre grande y flaco. (He was a tall and lean man.)En baloncesto un jugador grande y bueno siempre serà ¡ mejor para el equipo que uno bajo y bueno. (In basketball, a tall, good player will always be better for the team than a short, good player.) Like the English word big, grande can refer to being an adult as contrasted with being child, or to being older: Cuando sea grande voy a ser dentista. (When Im bigger/older, Im going to be a dentist.)Cautivà ³ el corazà ³n de grandes y chicos. (She captivated the hearts of the old and the young.)Es mi hermana grande. (Shes my big/older sister.)Estoy muy grande para jugar este juego. (Im too old for playing this game.) Grande Referring to Greatness Especially when it comes before the noun, grande can refer to someone or something being notable. It is often then the equivalent of great. Note than when grande comes before a singular noun, it is shortened to gran: Mi madre dijo que Gerald Ford fue un gran presidente. (My mother said Gerald Ford was a great president.)Fue una gran pelà ­cula ignorada por la prensa. (It was a great film ignored by the press.)Unos dicen que el calamiento global es la gran mentira de nuestro dà ­a. (Some say global warming is the great lie of our day.)I (The players try to leave the casino with the greatest reward possible.)No hay grandes diferencias entre realidad y ficcià ³n, ni entre lo verdadero y lo falso. (That are no huge differences between reality and fiction, nor between truth and falsehood.) Other Meanings of Grande Grande can refer to the larger metropolitan area of a city: La pesca comercial proporciona alrededor de 10.000 empleos en el gran Seattle. (Commercial fishing employs about 10,000 workers in the Seattle area.)La gran Roma està ¡ llena de arcos de triunfo. (Greater Rome is full of triumphal arches.) When it doesnt refer to size, grande usually refers to intensity: Es con gran tristeza que anunciamos el fallecimiento de nuestro querido amigo. (It is with deep sorrow that we announce the death of our dear friend.)Es una felicidad grande que Angelina piense en mà ­. (Its a great delight that Angelina is thinking about me.)Puedes ajustar las ventanas pero con gran dificultad. (You can adjust the windows, but with much  difficulty.)Era la primera nevada grande en diez aà ±os. (It was the first heavy snowfall in 10 years.) Grande in Phrases Grande is also used in various phrases: a lo grande — on a big scale: Si piensas a lo grande, puedes hacerlo a lo grande. (If you think big, you can do big.)en grande — on a big scale: Alajuela celebra en grande la gesta heroica de Juan Santamarà ­a. (Alajuela celebrates on a grande scale the heroic achievement of Juan Santamarà ­a.grandes mentes, grandes pensadores — great minds, great thinkers: Las grandes mentes piensan igual. (Great minds think alike.)el hueso grande — the capitate bone (of the hand): El hueso grande es el à ºnico entre todos los del carpo que puede dislocarse. (The capitate bone is the only one among all those of the carpus that can be dislocated.)la semana grande — the final week of Lent: El periodo de los siete dà ­as antes de la Pascua denominamos la semana grande.) (The seven-day period before Easter makes up the final week of Lent. Semana Grande can also refer to a week in August, known as Aste Nagusia, that is celebrated in northern Spain.)

Songs of Silence Free Essays

Songs of Silence – LITERATURE NOTES ABOUT CURDELLA FORBES * Born in Claremont, Hanover, in Jamaica. * Taught at the University of the West Indies from 1990 to 1995. * She is currently a professor of Caribbean Literature at Howard University. We will write a custom essay sample on Songs of Silence or any similar topic only for you Order Now CURDELLA FORBES’ NOVELS * Songs of Silence, 2003 * Flying with Icarus, 2003 * A Permanent Freedom, 2008 * From Nation to Diaspora: Samuel Selvon, George Lamming And the Cultural Performance of Gender, 2005 SUMMARY The book is about the recollections of a female narrator called Marlene (Nice). Her recollections are dispersed chronologically, and appear to have no rational order, but many of the same characters can be found in most of the ‘stories’, which occur in and around the same district. SETTING * Rural Jamaica. * Recollections/ stories are set in the 1960’s. MAJOR CHARACTERS: Marlene, Effita, No Name, Nathan, Miss Minnie, Raymond, Ionie, Maas Barber, Long Man, Cudjoe Man, Dolly, Minna, Mr. Papacita. RECOLLECTIONS/ STORIES 1. ‘EFFITA’ This is a recollection of the Sunday ritual of taking food to Aunt Sare. Her habit of praying for the carrier of the food is explored in great detail. The comedic telling of Effie’s death announcements is another detail that is explored. We learn what happens when she gives a wrong announcement for Melwyn, and no announcement for Son Son. This recollection ends with Effie’s death in 1995, with the implication that few people attended her funeral, despite the fact that most of the people in the district were related. SETTING: Green Town, Maaga Bay, Lucea, Montego Bay. CHARACTERS: Marlene/ Nice – the protagonist and narrator. Effita – the person who did informal death announcements for the district. Son Son – the narrator’s male schoolmate who died, also Effie’s nephew. Melwyn – Marlene’s cousin who was shot by Chisel Bwoy, then given an incorrect death announcement by Effie. Aunt Sare – the elderly lady who was a mid-wife. She would pray for every child that delivered food for her. Ionie – Marlene’s mother Chisel Bwoy – the police constable who shot Melwyn Miss Zeta – the shop owner. Maas Levi – the only person in the district with a car, an old Chevrolet that the villagers called ‘May Reach’. Mass Rat – the carpenter and coffin maker. Miss Herfa – Man Teacher’s wife and a teacher herself. Man Teacher – the principal of the local school. THEMES – death, old age. 2. ‘A STORY WITH NO NAME’ This is the story of a lady with no name. It is reputed that she was abandoned by her wealthy family. She is an anomaly in the district because she is high coloured, did not speak, was very expressive in church before her silence, and was reclusive. She put her reclusive nature on pause once a month, when she went to town in order to visit the post office to collect packages. The story gets interesting when she got pregnant and no-one knew the father. The child became her life, and she shared him with no one, but kept him to herself. He turned out to be even more silent than his mother. It was, however, rumoured that Maas Barber, Marlene’s father, was the child’s father. In between the telling of this story, is Marlene’s explanation of her own silence. SETTING: Tam Briscoe Hill, Baltree District, CHARACTERS Marlene/ Nice – the protagonist and narrator. No Name – the light skinned lady who was related to the Briscoes (rich landowners in the district)Ionie – Marlene’s mother. Maas Barber – Marlene’s father. Magsie – Marlene’s sister. Long Man – a traveler who used to pass through the district and stay at the narrator’s house. Luce Blagrove – the person who spread the rumour that Paul was Maas Barber’s child. Miss Clemmy – the lady who ran the post office. Paul – No Name’s son. Evert Briscoe – He was the only member of the Briscoe family who came home sometimes, he owned the piece of hill and the land that Maas Barber oversaw. THEMES: Racism, Alienation, Women in Society, Silence 3. ‘NATHAN’ This is the story of Nathan, Marlene’s brother. They were two years apart and were different from their other siblings because they were companions silence. Details are told of Nathan’s extreme ‘tightness’, or thriftiness, versus his sister’s need to give everything away. He eventually married a woman whom he adored, despite the fact that she was very loud, and had three children. Marlene describes Nathan as a very stubborn man. She reports a particular incident with an MP where he won a substantial settlement due to his stubbornness. Marlene maintains that they still have a good relationship. Great details are given about Marlene’s silence, along with her struggle to accept her brothers when/ while they were going through puberty. SETTING: Baltree District CHARACTERS Marlene – The narrator. Nathan – Marlene’s brother who was stubborn and very quiet. Everette – Marlene’s sister who likes to go to court to listen to the cases. Marlene heard the story of Nathan’s altercation with the MP from her. Tony -Marlene’s older brother. MP – The person that Nathan got in a fight with and received a settlement. THEMES: Love and family relationship, silence. 4. ‘THE IDIOT’ This recollection speaks about school and education. It begins with the story of Ionie’s pride taking a beating when she had to ask some-one, whom she had previously snobbed, for help. The story continues with Marlene explaining why she liked school. She speaks of her two scholastic rivals, Ezekiel and Wellesley, as well as the class dunce, Bas. She explains the phenomena of partially going to school due to farming responsibilities. We then learn that, in high school, she was the only person that would grudgingly speak to Ezekiel, who eventually dropped out of school. He ended up being very successful and Marlene felt bad because she did not treat him well. SETTING: Maggoty, Black Shop, St. James, St. Andrew. CHARACTERS Marlene – The narrator, extremely bright, was placed above her age range, in the class, due to her strong scholastic ability. Magsie – Marlene’s older sister. Bathsheba Watkiss – Ezekiel Watkiss’ sister and a teacher. Miss Herfa – A teacher and Man Teacher’s wife. Man Teacher – The principal. Pa Brown – The man who Ionie snubbed, and he had to help her to cross the river. Ezekiel Watkiss (Hog) – A student in the class who was her scholastic rival, despite not going to school consistently. Miss Celine – A teacher. Bas – the duncest boy in the class, did not attend school consistently. Wellesley Black (Goggleeye) – Another scholastic rival at school, he attended school regularly and was the correct age for the class. Nerissa Black – Wellesley’s sister and a pupil teacher who taught the lower grades. THEMES: childhood lessons, education and society, silence. 5. ‘MISS MINNIE’ This is the story of Raymond and Miss Minnie. Miss Minnie got married to Lester after his girlfriend deserted him, as well as their young son Raymond. Miss Minnie was an extremely good mother to Raymond, making him the centre of her life, especially after Lester died. Raymond became a successful individual and took Miss Minnie with him to live in Kingston. Great changes occurred in Kingston because he met his mother and brothers, which created waves in the relationship between himself and Miss Minnie. She was eventually diagnosed with depression and low self esteem. This created another change in their relationship, to the point where Raymond would not allow another woman to get between him and Miss Minnie. Marlene declares that, based on this fact, she cannot wait on him because he will never marry as long as Miss Minnie is alive. SETTING: Baltree District, Lucea, Kingston. CHARACTERS: Marlene – The narrator, she was in a romantic relationship with Raymond. Miss Minna – Raymond’s step mother who made him her life, she sells in the market, went to live with Raymond in Kingston in order to take care of him. Lester – Raymond’s father. He is very quiet and died while Raymond was still young, he was a shoe maker. Maas Baada – He read the newspaper to the men in the shoe shop and was affectionate towards Raymond, where his father was not. Raymond’s mother – Rumoured that she was a go-go dancer, she left when Raymond was a young child, instigated a meeting with him when he was a successful adult, attempted to become a part of his life. Sam Nichol – Raymond’s half brothers, from his mother’s side. THEME – Love and family relationship, silence. 6. ‘Morris Hole’ This is the story of how Marlene lost the river. She explains what the river meant to her through her visual description of Morris Hole, as well as the activities that use to occur there. She lost the river when her mother abruptly told her that she could not use it, without any explanation. She then recounts her white ancestry, as well as the traumatic experiences associated with her paternal great grandparents. SETTING – Baltree District, Morris Hole. CHARACTERS Marlene – The narrator, she is entering puberty in this recollection. Miss Retinella Martin – Marlene’s aunt. Munchie – Marlene’s cousin. Ionie – Marlene’s mother, she is grappling with her daughter entering puberty. Miss Clemmy, Miss Nellie – part of the group of Seventh Day Adventist women who wash by the river on Sunday mornings. Sister Sis – Marlene’s great grandmother who did not know the father of her child, and therefore named Gussie Bugess. Maas Gussie Burgess – a very pretty man, tall and brown with nice hair, who lived in Maaga Bay, named as grandpa Eric’s father. Granpa Eric – The ‘supposed’ product of a union between Maas Gussie and Sister Sis. Puppa ; Mummah – Maas Barber’s grandparents and his children’s great grandparents, they are white. Maas Barber – Marlene’s father. THEME: Race, loss of innocence. 7. ‘TRAVELLERS, OR FATHERS, OR LITTLE FOOL-FOOL’ This is the story of different kinds of love. There is parental love, as represented by Cudjoe Man and Dolly. Cudjoe Man is admired throughout the district for his devotion to his mentally challenged daughter. He combs her hair, dresses her, provides for her every need and is extremely protective of her. He even disregards his attraction to Minna, a possible love match, in order to concentrate on his child. We also learn of a contrasting relationship between Minna and Samson. The romantic love between theses two people is polluted by physical abuse. This abuse is whispered throughout the district, but things come to a head when Samson beats Minna with such trength and aggression that she is hospitalized. This beating occurred because Minna got in a fight with Dottie over Cudjoe Man. This confirmed Samson’s paranoia about Minnie cheating on him, and the result was beating her senseless, and then being attacked by Cudjoe-Man. Cudjoe Man ended up in jail and Dottie stayed with a family in the district until relatives from Ki ngston came to get her. SETTING: Baltree district, St. Ann, Green Town, Grant Ridge, Somerset St James CHARACTERS: Uncle Cuthbert (Cuttiie) – A traveller in his young days who told the children stories of his journeys. Cudjoe Man – A traveller who decided to stay in Baltree district and a devoted father to Dottie. Dolly (Fool-Fool/ Doll-Doll) – Cudjoe Man’s mentally challenged daughter. Pappa Lazzy – The gentleman who gave Cudjoe-Man a place to rest before he decided to stay in Baltree district. Long Man – A consistent visitor/ traveller to Marlene’s family. Lobie – He was famous in the district for his womanizing, began ‘noticing’ Dottie. Big Man Cassels – Lobie’s father, it was rumoured that he made inappropriate comments about Cudjoe Man and his daughter’s relationship. Linval – Marlene’s brother Miss Herfa – A teacher, Man Teacher’s wife. Minna – Samson’s girlfriend, flirted with Cudjoe Man, brutally beaten by Samson after the fight. Dottie – Cudjoe Man’s girlfriend, fought with Minna when she heard of the flirting incident between Minna and Cudjoe Man. THEMES: Love, love and family relationship, women in society. 8. ‘SO FEW AND SUCH MORNING SONGS’ Mr. Papacita’s story tells of the great love that he has for his wife. They played together and were very romantic with each other. The story also highlights Mr. Papacita’s beautiful voice, how he charmed everyone with it, how he lost it when his wife died, and regained it – to an extent – when he found the church. Mr. Papacita was a happy and carefree man when his wife was alive, but when she died, he became self destructive. He was always drunk, and literally passed out in the road when he was on one of his drunken tirades. He spent three weeks in the hospital and came out a changed man. He became very quiet, and one day he surprised everyone by going to church, becoming baptized and regaining a bit of his beautiful voice. SETTING – Baltree district. CHARACTERS Mr. Papacita – Miss Aita’s husband, he had a beautiful voice, lost himself to grieve initially, but eventually found the church. Miss Aita – Mr. Papacita’s wife, she died of cancer. Miss Nellie – Town gossip. Maas Levi – Owner of the Chevrolet, the only car in the district. Maas Don – The taylor THEMES: Love, religion 9. ‘EPILOGUE: A BEGINNING’ This epilogue takes the reader to the point at which Marlene is leaving the district to attend teachers’ college in Kingston. She was afraid, excited and glad – all at the same time – at the prospect of leaving her home. She reflects that all the characters in her reflections are a part of her. GLOSSARY OF TERMS Ackee – A yellow fruit that, when cooked, looks like scrambled eggs. Blue Boot – Your best clothes. Bruk dung – Dilapidated. Bulla cake – A round, flat cake, that has the texture of a hard cookie. Bauxite – A reddish brown rock that was mined in Jamaica. Congotay – Deceitful or deceiver. Coolie royal hair – Hair type that is a cross between Indian and Black, leaning more towards Black, wild in nature. Cotta – A circular and twisted cloth that is placed on the head to cushion a load. Cry cree – To beg for mercy, usually used when people are playing. Cucumaka stick – A stick that comes from a tree, of the same name, that is believed to help in abortions, despite no scientific evidence to prove this. Dulcimina – A big, old fashioned looking suitcase. Duppy – A ghost Faas with – To trouble someone or get in their personal business. Facety – Describes a person that is rude, or behaviour that is rude. Four eye – Word for some-one who is clairvoyant. Hootiah – A person who has not been well brought up. Jacket/ give jacket – To name a man as the father of a child when he is not, the child is the ‘jacket’ that the man is given. ibber – to keep your mouth shut, not talk. Peenie-wallie – A firefly. Pickni – A small child. Gleaner – A local Jamaican newspaper. Maas – Mr. / Mister. Mirasmi – Malnutrition. Mouthamassy – someone who talks too much and gossips a lot. MP – Member of Parliament Pocomania – A religio us cult that blends Christianity and African beliefs. It carries the stigma of obeah and is not widely accepted. Tegereg – A boisterous and uncouth person. UC – University of the West Indies Hospital. Yaws – A sore that has persisted for so long that it has become infected. How to cite Songs of Silence, Essay examples

Analysis of The New Singles Essay Example For Students

Analysis of The New Singles Essay The article that will be evaluated in this particular essay is taken from Newsweeks Society and Arts (dating August 14,2000), which is titled as The New Singles and it is written by Carla Power in cooperation with Antonia Francis, in Paris and Stefan Theil, in Berlin. As it can be understood from the title it is about the people in Europe, who prefer living alone. Throughout the article, different lifestyles and different choices of people, who are living alone, are reflected. While doing that, the reasons and the outcomes of living alone are given with some additional information including, statistics and research results. The article shows that there is a certain shift away from family life to solo lifestyle. Day after day more and more people decide to live alone. Reasons are various. Personal ones are; to have an independent and colorful life, to have an own place in which one can find peace and solitude, to escape from a routine family life, social ones are; the revolution in the field of communications, the shift from a stable business culture to a mobile one, increasing rates of working women Consequently, these reasons direct people to live alone. According to sociologist Jean-Cloude Kaufmann whose ideas take palace in the article, the home-alone phenomenon is irresistible momentum of individualism. And also, a research made by Richard Scace reveals that in the year of 2010, the number of single person households will be more than the number of families and couples who are living together. This may be as a consequence of broken families, relationships that come to an end, and a search for a self determined life. The outcomes of home-alone phenomenon are also discussed in the article. For instance, people who sought freedom or need solitude are more apt to drink alcohol and as it is mentioned in the article over the past five years, these people became the mainstay for British Drinks industry. On the other hand more houses are being build in order to answer the needs of home-aloners. In addition, the need for telecommunication or the ways of feeling secure created a new era of telecommunication and security services. When considering the relationships of these people; they carry out different and short timed relationships that bring some of the sexual problems and diseases together. The conditions become tough for the aged people who are living or who want to live alone. After retirement, they mostly tend to be together with other people or to meet regularly, but still by leading their own lives. Considering the style and the language of the article, we may say that its lan guage is simple, but coluored with up to date vocabulary and idioms. The abbreviations used, makes the article easy to be read. The beginning sentence: You now the type arouses the question which type? and raises wonder. Also the title attracts interest and urges one to read the article. Accurate uses of punctuations help the true reflection of the meanings. The colouring of some of the words in the article makes it more interesting. The article is based on the results of some pollsters, statistics and researches made by sociologists, and some institutes. So, we may say that, it depends on the basis of objective grounds with little or no personal additions. The quotations used throughout the article -which I find very interesting and sincere- gives it a fluent and lively tone. It is a well-organized and coherent article, which displays the living conditions and the preferences of the Europeans, in near past, present and even future. It starts by reflecting the home-alone phenomenon continues by giving the results and the outcomes of this phenomenon. A good research is made on almost every ground of life, such as marketing advertising, economy, and relationships and so on. This encourages the reader to think objectively and to confide in what is written in the article. .u7d615978ddc9bbfc224eee3a3d0cbe46 , .u7d615978ddc9bbfc224eee3a3d0cbe46 .postImageUrl , .u7d615978ddc9bbfc224eee3a3d0cbe46 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u7d615978ddc9bbfc224eee3a3d0cbe46 , .u7d615978ddc9bbfc224eee3a3d0cbe46:hover , .u7d615978ddc9bbfc224eee3a3d0cbe46:visited , .u7d615978ddc9bbfc224eee3a3d0cbe46:active { border:0!important; } .u7d615978ddc9bbfc224eee3a3d0cbe46 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u7d615978ddc9bbfc224eee3a3d0cbe46 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u7d615978ddc9bbfc224eee3a3d0cbe46:active , .u7d615978ddc9bbfc224eee3a3d0cbe46:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u7d615978ddc9bbfc224eee3a3d0cbe46 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u7d615978ddc9bbfc224eee3a3d0cbe46 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u7d615978ddc9bbfc224eee3a3d0cbe46 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u7d615978ddc9bbfc224eee3a3d0cbe46 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u7d615978ddc9bbfc224eee3a3d0cbe46:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u7d615978ddc9bbfc224eee3a3d0cbe46 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u7d615978ddc9bbfc224eee3a3d0cbe46 .u7d615978ddc9bbfc224eee3a3d0cbe46-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u7d615978ddc9bbfc224eee3a3d0cbe46:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Swimming EssayConsequently, being an objective, coherent and fluent article, The New Singles by Carla Power, satisfies and pleases the reader.Bibliography:Newsweek,August 14,2000. Society Arts The New Singles

Hip Hop and Black Women free essay sample

Hip-hop is the latest expressive manifestation of the past and current experience as well as the collective consciousness of African-American and Latino-American youth. But more than any music of the past, it also expresses mainstream American Ideas that have now been Internalized and embedded Into the psyches of American people of color over time. A part of the learned mainstream American culture is sexism and misogyny. Hip-hop culture is frequently condemned for its misogynistic exploitation of women, but this misogyny has its roots in the culture in which we live.Hip-hop but can be explored and used as a valuable tool in examining gender relations. It brings to surface the issues that face many young people, such as discrimination, peer relations, and self- worth, that can be considered in order to bring about change in the misogynistic aspects of hip-hop culture and American culture, in general. For young people that do not hold sexist Ideals, mainstream hip-hop may influence them to do so as It spreads and continuously gains popularity. We will write a custom essay sample on Hip Hop and Black Women or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page And others are directly and Indirectly supporting an environment that allows sexism to continue. Exploitation of women In hip-hop culture has become an accepted part of It for both the artists and audiences alike, and many critics blame the music without looking any deeper. When going to any hip-hop related event, my friends and I normally expect that we will be disrespected verbally and physically, and have to prepare ourselves accordingly. We have to be careful in choosing what clothes to wear, how we carry ourselves and what we say. I have often wondered why it is so acceptable (for men and women) and what the roots of the values expressed in the culture are. Hip-hop culture, started by black and Latino youth In New York City, (by definition) encompasses rapping (and now singing), deejay, break-dancing, and graffiti- writing, but has evolved to be much more than that. It Is now a lifestyle for many young people mostly between the ages of 13 and 30.It now Involves music videos, fashion, language, the club scene, and the general way in which young people interact with one another. Hip-hop culture is widely used in commercials (Coca-Cola, Burger King), fashion advertisements, video games, TV shows, and there is even a hip- pop exhibit at the Brooklyn Museum of Art. The most powerful and influential part of hip-hop culture has come to be rap music, a form of poetry that is said over musical instrumentation. In recent years rap music has developed a reputation of being brutally honest, violent, and misogynistic.Much of the music and many videos specifically transmit, promote, and perpetuate negative Images of black women. All women, but mostly black women In particular are seen In popular hip-hop culture as sex objects. Almost every hip-hop video that Is regularly run today shows many dancing women (usually surrounding one or two en) wearing not much more than bikinis, with the cameras focusing on their body commonly contain name calling to suggest that women are not worth anything more than money, if that.Women are described as being only good for sexual relations by rappers who describe their life as being that of a pimp. In many popular rap songs men glorify the life of pimps, refer to all women as they think a pimp would to a prostitute, and promote violence against women for disobeying. Of course, not all rap songs are misogynistic and all black men do not speak and think this way , but large percentages within hip-hop culture do. The name calling disrespects, dehumidifies, and dishonors women.If a man labels a woman with any of these names, he may feel Justified in committing physical or psychological violence against her. The name-calling may also be representative of the way these men are thinking and feeling the anger, disdain, and ill feelings toward women. Joan Morgan, ho refers to herself as a hip-hop feminist, reveals, Yeah, assists are hurtful the real crime isnt the name-calling, its their failure to love usto be our brothers in the Nay that we commit ourselves to being their assists. [l] Many black men within hip- pop culture who battle racism and oppression themselves everyday have been conditioned by society not to trust or love, and if they do not love themselves, it is difficult for them to love women or anyone else in a healthy manner. Misogynistic hip-hop does not only expose black mens pain, but it also shows the issues that black women may want to deal with. Much of the sexual exploitation in hip-hop culture is done with the consent and collaboration of women. A significant amount of misogynistic hip-hop consumers are women, and hundreds of bikini- donned women show up for the music video shoots as unpaid participants. 2] Dance clubs and backstage of concerts are flooded with women who express willingness to do anything sexually with a man to get drinks, money, Jewelry, or Just to feel privileged and wanted. Omen, especially black women, have less access to power, material wealth, and protection and so have historically used sex (in prostitution and various other domains) as the bartering chip to gain access. 3] Misogynistic ideas and practices from the past have been passed down to todays hip-hop youth. For example, during slavery the black woman was often forced to have sexual relations with any male clatterers, overseers, and slaves) that desired her. Black women were sometimes used as breeding instruments to produce more human property, and at other times forced to have sex to pay the for food, the safety of her children, or to be trea ted less harshly on a day to day basis. They were paying with their bodies as a survival strategy. Out of this emerged the stereotype of black women as promiscuous and oversexed, and this shaped some black womens sexual morality. Some started to look at themselves as society viewed them, and some accepted that they had no control over their own bodies. When trying to fit into white society after slavery and take on ascribed white gender roles. Some black men wanted black women to have a economic providers. They have been, for the most part, unable to meet each others expectations, but these same obsessions are demonstrated in hip-hop culture.Some Omen want men to be the economic providers, and use their sexual power to receive economic gain from men. While some men within hip-hop want women to be passive and have learned to manipulate women by offering money and power to them. In a study done about black male/female relationships of the hip-hop generation, any black men in the hip-hop culture that were interviewed valued economic resources and used these resources as a way to manipulate and control women. And some women negotiated with their bodies for things that they wanted. 4] In order to gain access to these things and to get the love and attention from men that they Ant, some women felt they must cater to the exploitative images of what men want and think women should be. Many women defined their own worth on what they can do for and get from a man. Some women were willing to take risks with their bodies, minds and hearts hoping to ease their socio-economic status and gain security for their childrens future, and they have learned to use their sexuality to do this.Vibe Magazine talked to four Omen in the September 2001 issue who all regularly had one-night stands or on- going sexual relationships with rappers. One of the women Vibe talked to is Nikke i, a 30-year-old woman who has had many lovers in the hip-hop industry. Vibe said, 0 her lovers read like a Whos Who of Her reason for partaking in multiple insignificant relationships with rappers was, Ive got nothing to offering education, no good Job, no nothing. So why would a man want me, other than sex? I felt I had to give, so I used myself. [6] Many women like Nikkei are put all of the blame on themselves for being used by men. They assumed and accepted that men would oppress and disrespect them. As another one of the women described, If you had the right kind of man that wasnt controlling, and you were like a team, itd be check out theres no man out there like that. [7] The four women described a new low in relationships between men and women within the hip-hop community. Men thought that women were only worth giving them sexual favors, and women thought men are only worth giving them money. Censorship of hip-hop music is not the solution. Instead, the solution is to change the culture, system, and ideology so misogynist lyrics are not written. There are female hip-hop artists and consumers who are trying to fight against the hip-hop misogyny, but many times they are not taken seriously. Some female artists try to work within the current male-dominated industry and play the expected misogynist role. Others are seen as misusing sex and feminism and devaluing black men, or Just shooting off at the mouth. [8] Education is the first step in changing gender relations in the hip-hop community.People first need to be made aware that womens rights are being violated verbally in that hip-hop youth interact with one another everyday. Each individual can remember the roots of his/her own internalized sexist ideology. Knowing the history of this ideology, we can keep history from being repeated. A change in the hip-hop cultures collective consciousness can spread to the larger population, or vice versa. En need knowledge to act and speak out against the exploitation of women, not only in hip-hop culture, but in all cultures everywhere.

The Samurai

The Samurai, the Leader and Biggest Influence to Japan The Japanese people see them selves in a historical perspective that is based on the samurai age (Reischauer 41) Inanzo Nitobe, a Japanese merchant who was present at the landings of Commodore Perry in japan, once stated, What Japan was she owed to the samurai. They were not only the flower of the nation, but its the root as well. All the gracious gifts of heaven flowed through them,( Nitobe 159-160). The samurai was the group with the biggest impact on japan. Japanese beliefs and actions in feudal japan revolved around the samurai warrior class. Some of the samurai beliefs and actions are still present in japan today. The Japanese samurai code of Bushido greatly impacted Feudal Japan and has had a lasting impact on modern The Japanese title of samurai in English means servitors (Reischaur 52). The samurai served the Japanese people as leaders of religion, society, governing, and every day life. They were also good role models to the people on how to live a honorable fulfilled life. The samurai had its own caste or social class just below the shoguns who ruled Japan. During feudalist japan the samurai were the permanent political ruler, moral exemplar, and the arbitrator of manners and taste (Storry 43). Samurai warriors believed in Zen Buddhism which was a split from Buddhism that came from China(Lewis 42). Zen Buddhism was a form that focused on the benefits of The samurai fallowed their code of conduct called Bushido. This was a similar to chivalry used years earlier in Europe (Nitobe 4). In this code were five major ideals. One is that every samurai displayed bravery in all faces of samurai life, mostly focusing on battle. Two is to treat everyone with honor and be treated with honor. Three is that they conduct themselves with self- discipline, especially when it came to meditation and ...

Emergancy Operations plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Emergancy Operations plan - Essay Example Most of these provisions often obtain emergency assistance from the local or remote Balancing Authorizes. On the other hand, the Transmission Operator is expected to have an emergency load reduction plan locating all the identified IROLs (Storm, 2001). These Transmission Operator’s plans should include implementations that allow reduction load plans in sufficient time and amount thereby allowing IROL mitigation before collapse or separation of system. A well-articulated emergency operation should ensure that the load reduction plan must be implemented within 30 minutes. It is the responsibility of the Transmission Operator and Balancing Authority to ensure that the emergency operating plans are sufficient to mitigate emerging hazards or emergencies. Therefore, a standard, emergency operating plan must ensure that there is effective communication protocol during emergency mitigations. Additionally, the must ensure that are load reduction quantities to control the action and res olve emergencies with the established NERC timelines. Any emergency operating plan must be reviewed and evaluated after at least three operational years to ensure that the plans is applicable with development of the affected area or region (Joint Commission Resources, Inc., 2004). ... These elements will provide the guideline to what safe operation mitigation measures to follow. The county of San Mateo’s Emergency Plan The County of San Mateo has a well-structured and elaborate emergency operating plan that meets the federal government’s requirements. This plans aim at mitigating or managing any disaster that might occur in the county (Storm, 2001). The County of San Mateo’s local mitigation plan incorporates both the local and regional components. In its emergency operation plan, the County of San Mateo has identified most of its assets that are at risk and they include local roads, schools, water and sewer lines, hospitals, and public facilities (Webster, 2012). In compliance with the disaster planning requirements, the County Of San Mateo local hazard mitigation plan has defined the county’s general disaster mitigation plan in the form of an appendix (Joint Commission Resources, Inc., 2004). Additionally, the County of San Mateo emer gency mitigating general plan allows periodic evaluation; however, the last update proposed to retain its original organizational structure and plan. The County of San Mateo is liable to numerous natural resources including dam failure inundations, tsunamis, wild land fires, earthquakes, floods, and liquefaction. Therefore, the safety of the residents of this county requires a well-articulated disaster management plan or readiness. Relief from disasters is of much greater results than preparing for the disaster itself (Storm, 2001). Notably, the County of San Mateo has well-planned emergency operation plan since the plan is readily identifying the high priority

Preston City Council. Effects of Motivational Theories Essay

Preston City Council. Effects of Motivational Theories - Essay Example H. 1943. â€Å"A Theory of Human Motivation.† Psychological Review. Volume 50, pp. 370-396. 47 CHAPTER I – INTRODUCTION 1.1 Summary The large size of several firms creates problems when trying to evaluate the levels of motivation of the employees working in them. Most organizations today have started considering employee empowerment a significant factor in human resource management. They show this by increasing the responsibility they assign each individual with, as well as giving him or her more power in some situations. They are also increasingly aware of the importance of motivation in the work force. This importance increased when employees started receiving additional responsibilities, thus affecting the organizations with this characteristic of motivation in many different ways. Dedicated and hardworking employees are majorly the reason for success of an organization, whereas this productivity is itself a function of motivation. 1.2 Introduction This research begi ns by introducing the idea of ‘motivation’, and the several motivational theories, which often affect the workings of employees of public sector firms. Experts believe in a strong relationship between management success and employee motivation. Thus, motivation is a key factor, which helps maintain a firm’s success and keep its performance in check. Absence of such motivation would mean less success for the organization. Thus, this investigation will at all points during the discussion, focus on the effects that motivational theories have on a public sector organization and the employees that work for it. Before the importance of including a human element in the treatment... The researchers used both primary and secondary data for research, using questionnaires to collect the data, which they later presented in the literature review. The primary research employed the use of a survey questionnaire, which was administered to a sample of 40 employees from Preston City Council. This data collection focused on collecting qualitative as well quantitative data. This data helped the researchers conclude details about how much of a gap exists between a person’s motivational level and the motivating factors at work. They also found a positive correlation between an employee’s salary and their motivation level. This research begins by introducing the idea of ‘motivation’, and the several motivational theories, which often affect the workings of employees of public sector firms. Experts believe in a strong relationship between management success and employee motivation. Thus, motivation is a key factor, which helps maintain a firm’s success and keep its performance in check. Absence of such motivation would mean less success for the organization. Thus, this investigation will at all points during the discussion, focus on the effects that motivational theories have on a public sector organization and the employees that work for it. Before the importance of including a human element in the treatment and management of employees was discovered, organizations simply treated them as a factor of production; a mere input to the process. However, since research revealed the importance of establishing human relations in the management of human resources, managers have made it a pri ority to cater to the needs and motivational levels of their employees. An example of such research is the research Elton Mayo (1960) did through the Hawthorne studies (Dickson, 1973, 1-25), where he found a strong relationship between motivation and work conditions, proving that money is not the only motivating factor.

The National Development Policies Of Ethiopia Economics Essay

The National Development Policies Of Ethiopia Economics Essay The main purpose of this paper is to review the national agricultural development policies of Ethiopia during the reign of the Imperial, Derg and EPRDF led government and the predominant trends of international field of development thinking pursued (similarities and differences among) in the period of post 1974 to 2004. Ethiopia is one of the poorest nations on earth. From its 77 million people over 80 percent depend on subsistence agriculture and more than 40% live below the absolute poverty line, (CSA, 2007). The country has remained to be one of the tragic places where the worst cases of famine and drought and man made problems such as extended civil war and degradations of natural resources have been observed (EC project proposal 1998). However, the country has a good resource potential for economic development. In response to these socio- economic situations, various development policies and strategies have been brought in to practice by the successive governments that ruled the country which had in most of the cases ended up with bare minimum impacts in reversing the prevailed development bottlenecks of the country. Thus a good part of the poor performance is explained by policy failures of the past regimes generally and the derg regime in particular (EEA, 1999/2000) as sited by (Alemayehu, G.2007). Thus, after the collapse of the military regime in May 1991, the EPRDF led government adopted various development policy reforms and structural adjustments that included liberalization of markets, decentralization of central government authorities to regions, woredas and designed agriculture development led industrialization strategies. Similarly, at the later stages of the period (2002), the government pinpointed poverty reduction as its crucial development objective which is in consonance wit h international directions and commitments. In what follows this paper tries to review development policies of the up to the current regime in Ethiopia.2. Trends and Development Policy Environment Before and after 1991Â  [1]Â   2.1 Development Policies up to 1974 The imperial government of Haileselasie, was the first government to exercise different development policies as Ethiopia is first African state to attempt economic development planning (Georgi. G. 1981). But the plans determined only general trends and likely development rates as they gave an extremely generalized allocation to particular sectors of the economy as of 1960s (Haile H., 1995). During this time three five-year plans were prepared for the development of the economy with different targets and area of priorities. They were: The first five year plan (1957-62) The second five year plan (1963-67) The Third five year plan (1968-73) 2.1.1. First five year plan (1957-62)Â  [2]Â   This plan had some targets on the agricultural sector. According to the evaluations of the plan targets that was made in the second five year plan, its impact on the agricultural sector was negligible since emphasis during this plan period was on infrastructure and social transformation (raising the level of education and the training of technical personnel) for the implementation of the five year program. No need to bring about fundamental changes in present methods of (peasant) production and stuck to the kind of tools now used(Dejene (IEG 1957),pg 45 Donors policy of this period was biased in favour of urbanization vis-Ã  -vis rural development. the world bank for example, by far the largest single source of development assistance to Ethiopia in recent years, allocated 85% of its total loans to modern roads during the 1950-59 period, and nothing to the agricultural sector(world Bank 1985). 2.1.2. Second five-year plan (1963-67)Â  [3]Â   Mainly the priority focus was given to industry (manufacturing), minerals and electric power development, but, unlike the first five year plan, some attention was given to agriculture. In this plan, quantitative targets for the production of agricultural marketable products like cereals, cotton, cattle, and coffee; and for the rate of growth of agriculture were set. To achieve the production targets set in the plan three main approaches were outlined: Execution of land reform, introduction of tools implements and machinery as well as elementary training of the producers so as to raise productivity, per capita income and consumption so as to transform the subsistence economy into a monetized economy. The organization of farmers cooperatives The organization of commercial farms based on mechanization IEG (1962). However, in the second five-year plan agriculture was anticipated to grow at a rate of 2.4 percent, but it was said to have grown at a rate of 1.9 only, It was only 42.2 percent of the investment target that was actually full filled because of which much of the development programs were not achieved, The land reform policy was completely ignored, a fact which basically accounted for the failure and above all, there was lack of progress in policy measures and organizational programs, which were essential for the success of the plan. Because of all these, the agricultural sector could not develop as much as it was anticipated in the plan. 2.1.3. The third five-year plan (1968 -73)Â  [4]Â   This time exhibited a marked departure from the previous plans. It recognized the importance of the agricultural sector and charted out a relatively clear and well articulated agricultural development strategy. The plan argued that modernization of peasant subsistence agriculture in all areas of the country simultaneously is hardly possible, but no time should be lost in making a start in strategically selected areas in which good results can soon be seen. This being the strategy, two main approaches for the development of Ethiopia agriculture were indicated in the third five-year plan. These were the package program and the development of large-scale commercial farms: The Package Program The package program followed the policy of concentrating development efforts in a given area so as to bring the required changes in agriculture. The practice was to be limited to specific areas since the modernization of peasant subsistence farms in all areas of the country simultaneously was assumed that it would lead to the dilution of efforts and scarce resources. In accordance with this, the implementation of the program was started in strategically selected areas where good results were expected in a relatively short period of time. At first the package program took the form of a Comprehensive Package Program (CPP), and later the Minimum Package Program followed. The CPP aimed at achieving maximum result by focusing on specific high potential areas such as Chilalo, Wollaita, Ada District, Tahtay Adyabo, Hadegti and Humera and established agricultural development units for each of them. This program had the following objectives (Tesfai 1975:41) To increase the income of low income small holder farmers and tenants and narrow the prevailing income disparities in the rural areas; To achieve economic and social development; To enhance local participation in development; To increase employment opportunities; and To stress on research, training, and transferability. The objectives were supposed to be achieved through The provision of extension services; i.e., spreading innovations and organizing demonstration fields to farmers; The establishment of marketing organizations aiming at selling production fairly in comparison to the cost of production; Sale of inputs through marketing organizations which would make high yielding seeds and fertilizers available to the farmers; The provision of credit facilities at a reasonable rate of interest so that the farmers could be able to purchase the new supplies; and Promoting improved water supply system and expansion of education. Health and nutritional studies were to be established In general, the CPP has resulted in the increase of incomes of peasants and tenants in the project areas. The increases in incomes were, however, directly related to the size of the land holdings and thus it resulted in growing differentiation among the peasantry. This and its huge resource requirements led to the reevaluation of it adoption of what is known as the minimum package program. The Minimum Package Program (MPP) The comprehensive package projects were found too costly to be duplicated in other parts of the country. It was thus decided to launch a scheme which was thought to be less costly per farmer. Thus, in 1972 the minimum package program (MPP) involving only those minimum services considered critical for rural development (mainly fertilizer and credit) started to be implemented along all-weather roads. The MPP was envisaged to reduce the cost of developing the agricultural sector that in comparison to the CPP a much wider coverage could be attained. Tentative programs were made for the establishment of about ten projects in selected high response areas each year for thirteen year. According to the program; By 1985 it was estimated that one million families or about 20 percent of the total would be reached The MPP was designed to cover 440 woredas out of the 550 woredas of the country and this was to cover about 70 pre cent of the agricultural population For the implementation of MPP, the Extension and Project Implementation Department (EPID) was established To achieve the objectives, the diffusion of a few proved methods and innovations including improved seeds, fertilizers and farm implements as widely as possible was envisaged to reach the small farmers in various parts of the country. However, due to shortages of manpower, improved seeds and fertilizers, the MPP was not able to achieve its objective of coverage of wider areas and the cost of the MPP was not as low as it was envisaged. landless and semi-landless rural population. As a result of these, agricultural production did not increase as much as anticipated was not increased and the standard of living of the majority did not improve. In fact the programs demonstrated that rural development policy based on feudal land holding arrangements would tend to worsen the conditions of the low-income target population. The Development of Large Scale Commercial Farms The objectives in establishing large-scale commercial farms were to achieve rapid gains in output both to domestic consumption and the availability of surpluses for investment, to get an increase in agricultural exports or substitution for imports, to create new employment opportunities this is because of the fact that such farms require big investment which was not available from internal sources, the implementation of the strategy necessitated a heavy dependence on foreign capital. To attract foreign investment a number of incentives were provided including: Exemption from income tax (tax holiday) for five years for investments of Br. 200,000 and above; Exemption from customs duty; and Remittance of profits and salaries in hard currency. As a result, a number of large-scale commercial farms, mainly owned by foreigners, such as the Wonji Sugar Enterprise, the Setit Humera Plantation, and the Tendaho Plantation were quickly established. But due to misguided incentives, capital dependent operations and outflow capital the large farms did not live up to the expectations of the country. At the end of the second five years plan the industry First argument of the 1950s was being challenged theoretically as post independent Africas aspiration for a rapid industrialization process become increasingly frustrated (Johnston,M et.al 1961) and the major donors made a significant shift in their aid policies in favor of rural development vis-Ã  -vis urbanization and construction of infrastructure. In an attempt to realize this change of policy, donors subjected to Ethiopian government to strong pressure foreign assistance agencies, particularly the World Bank (IBRD) and American organizations, advised Ethiopia to give high priority to the agricultural sector and recommended the package approach concentrating on the more promising regions. This idea also supported by FAO (Nekby 1971:9) The third five-year plan largely followed and coincided with the strategy of what has been known as the Green Revolution (1960s-70s) and which had its own success story in raising agricultural production tremendously in (e.g., India, Pakistan, and other Asian countries).However, it could not minimize the income gap (in fact it is believed to have increased it) and benefits were not fairly distributed (many areas were not included in the program). 2.2 Development Policies during the Derg Regime (1974-1991) It is generally acknowledged that the pre-1975 land tenure system in Ethiopia was one of the most complex in the world and had not been thoroughly studied (Cohen and Weintraub, 1975; Gilkes, 1975; Dessalegn, 1984; Dejene, 1999) as sited by (FAO, 2003). After the 1975 land reform by the Derge has been considered by many as a radical measure that has abolished tenant landlord relationships in Ethiopia. In order to implement the Proclamation, peasant associations were established at various levels. Following the land reform proclamation, another decree that was knows as Peasant Associations Organization and Consolidation Proclamation No. 71/1975 was made. This was followed by the All Ethiopia peasant Association Proclamation No 130/1977. University and high school students were dispatched to rural areas to help the implementation of the land reform. 2.2.1. Agricultural Development Strategy Proclamation No. 31/1005 was not about agricultural production. It was about radically changing the tenure system that existed in the country. The agricultural development strategy of the Derg period was what was known as socialist transformation of agriculture; that of transforming agriculture along socialist lines. This was to be implemented through the establishment and consolidation of state farms and producers cooperatives. Thus producers cooperatives and state farms became the overwhelming priority of the government and its implementation was supported by various proclamations and decrees. Implementation of this policy resulted in the existence of two main types of economic structures in agriculture; namely, The small peasant sub sector represented by the overwhelmingly large number of small farmers; and The socialist sub sector represented by the producers cooperatives and state farms. The small peasant Farms In countries like Ethiopia peasant farms have a relatively good productivity record. Although they employ traditional technology and hardly use modern inputs, their crop-yields are often comparatively high, as they make more efficient use of productive resources than cooperatives or state farms. However small scale agriculture is often considered an obstacle to long-term industrial development and the creation of more mechanized frames. Faced with the choice between a smallholder strategy and a socialist approach, based on collective ownership, group and state farming and governmental control of the rural economy, the government chose the latter. The peasant farms continued to be dominant in Ethiopia even at the height of collectivization year in 1987 by cultivating 94% of the total farmland in Ethiopia. Nevertheless, government policy towards small farmers was discriminatory in that it favored the socialist sub sector. Government policy pertaining tax, modern inputs, credit, pricing policies, and extension services almost completely ignored the small peasants in favour of cooperatives. Quota have been set for every peasant association to sell a given amount of their produce to the Agricultural Marketing Corporation (AMC) at prices fixed by the AMC which were substantially lower than the open market prices and even lower than the prices fixed for cooperatives and state farms. In situation where peasants could not meet the quota, there were incidences where farmers had to buy from the market at higher prices and sell to the AMC at extremely low prices. In spite of all these, however, the smallholders were more successful at absorbing labour, raising yield and increasing income than producer cooperatives and state farms were. Small farmers were resistant to be collectivized, but the government adamantly pushed forward to strengthen cooperatives unsuccessfully. Apart from other concomitant factors, the disappointing performance of the agricultural sector during the Derg period can be attributed to agricultural policies favoring the socialist strategy as opposed to a smallholder approach. The Socialist Sub Sector Producers Cooperatives The Directive for the establishment of producers cooperatives was issued in June 1979. Accordingly, an agricultural producers cooperative was defined as an economic organization of farmers which is established through the gradual transformation of individually owned means of production in to common ownership based on the will and common interest of the farmers. The Directive for the establishment of cooperatives was based on the following principles: The principle of voluntarism. This principle indicates that cooperatives shall be established on the free will of those to be cooperativezed. The principle of gradualism. According to this, the development of cooperatives shall proceed from the simpler type to the more advanced types of cooperatives. The principle of all round state assistance. The government is expected to provide all embracing assistance to the establishment and consolidation of cooperatives. In practice, the principle of voluntarism was violated. In many cases the establishment of cooperatives was conducted by force as opposed to the principle of voluntary entry. As for the gradualism, the directives provided for a gradual progress of cooperatives from simple to advanced types. Cooperatives would start in the form of malba, a type of cooperative where members pool their land together (except their backyard) but keep their production implements and animals privately; they would then proceed to welba, where land, production implements and animals become communal property and a small plot is kept as a backyard. Weland was a kind of higher cooperative made by a number of malbas and/or welbas. With regard to all round state assistance, the government gave priority to cooperatives at the expense of smallholder peasants. Once they were established, Privileges not offered to peasant cultivators, or even to state farms were given to cooperatives. They paid less per tax head than individual peasants and modern inputs like fertilizer, pesticides, etc. were provided to them at subsidized prices and bank interest rates were comparatively lower. They were also given priority on extension services and had access to additional labor from peasant and youth association members. With all these however, the process of collectivization was still very much at an embryonic stage and in the eve of total collapse. Producers cooperatives were tilling 2 percent of the total farmland in 1987. The marketed surplus of cooperatives and individual farms were also about equal in that the average that both were selling was about 20 percent of their harvest, and the rest was consumed at home (68 per cent) while 12 percent was reserved as next seasons seed. However, the cooperativization drive ended in complete collapse largely because of the lack of farmers willingness. Good evidence is what happened when the government was forced by circumstances to issue the Mixed Economic Policy Reform of March 1990. Although the government intended to reorganize and strengthen them, over 95 percent of the producers cooperatives disintegrated with in three months after the declaration of the policy reform. State Farms State farms are farming enterprise that are owned, managed and undertaken by the government. Most state farms were privately owned commercial operations before 1975. According to the March 1975 land reform proclamation all large-scale farms shall be organized, as state farms, and the government shall administer these farms in any manner found it fit. In addition to these, many state farms were also established during the Derg period. The chief aims of state farms were to help alleviate the countries food problems, Contribute to export earning and employment generation. However their performance had been very disappointing due to the following main reasons. Management inefficiency: Lack of appropriate management in the sate farms resulted in misutilization of resources. Highly centralized management system curtailed the exercise of managerial autonomy at farm levels. Problems of Planning and Implementation: Farms were not given the right of preparing their own plans. Plans were prepared at enterprise or corporation level, and each farm was ordered to implement the plan, which may not reflect the objective conditions in the farm. The establishment of state farms was not conducted on the basis of proper study and analysis. Inadequate Controlling Systems: State farms, as in other public firms, had little managerial freedom to plan and to control. Even the cost-benefit analysis was worked at higher levels and each farm is evaluated base on the grand balance sheet of the enterprise or corporation. Disguised Unemployment: Every farm was over populated. There exist unnecessary labour imposing additional costs to the farms. Unnecessary structures were formulated deliberately to absorb more employees. Resettlement and Villagaization Resettlement Prior to the 1974 revolution, resettlement was started out on a small scale as a result of individual initiatives by local governors and aid agencies with a variety of motives and objectives. By the time of the revolution a mere 7,000 household heads had been established in 20 settlement sites at a cost of 8 million US dollars. Resettlement was seen as a means of addressing a range of issues. From an ecological perspective it reduced population pressure in the highlands; from an economic standpoint it was believed that resettlement could help to increase productivity and make use of under-utilized fertile lands; and from a social point of view resettlement was seen as a way of providing land to those with out it, to settle paternalists, and remove unwanted urban unemployment. Resettlement continued at a small scale in the first decade of the military rule so that in total some 46,000 households, comprising 150,000 people had been resettled on 88 sites in 11 regions. Villagization Villagization is a process by which rural households were moved from scattered dwellings into nucleated villages as part of a governmental attempt to modernize rural life and agricultural production patterns. Villagization in Ethiopia began as a regional operation in Bale during the Ethio-somalia war in 1977/78. One of the main objectives of the program at that time was to guarantee the safety of the local inhabitants from invading Somali troops during the war with Somalia. Six years later in December 1984, the prorgamme was extended to the adjusting region of Hararghe, again chiefly for security reasons. In June 1986, a National Villagization Coordination Committee was set up to undertake villagization work as an economic policy to improve rural life. By mid-1987, the government claimed that 12 million people (about one third of the rural population) were villagized. The highest number of newly established villages were built in Shewa and Hararghe. The objectives of this program were the creation of a conducive situation that would facilitate the dissemination of improved agricultural inputs and services. However, this program, like the other programs, was not successful because it was not done on the basis of the participation of the people to be villagized and they were largely unwilling to be villagized. Moreover, it was poorly planned and implemented. The above development policy reforms of the Dergs Military government was a result of the ties made with the East Socialist states such as Russia and other east European countries that had an ideology of command economy system. 2.3. Policy reform during the early transitional government (1991-1994) The EPRDF overthrew the Derg regime in May 1991 after a 17-year prolonged civil war in all parts of the country, leading to the formation of Transitional Government of Ethiopia (TGE). The 1991 economic policy document of the TGE declared collectivization and villagization as undesirable and liberalized both agricultural markets. The overriding objective of the government was given as attaining fast broad based economic development. an economic reform program was initated, which took the form of structural adjustment program(SAP) nder the auspices of the world bank and IMF. the reform included the removal of substantial taxation of agriculture, market liberalization and devaluation. The fertilizer market was liberalized, creating a multi channel distribution system. (Alemayehu and Berhanu (1999),pg.52). The TGE which was replaced by the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) in August 1995 through public election. Since 1992 the TGE was successful to favor market driven development policy by undergoing important structural adjustments and reforms (European Union, 2002). These included; the abolishment of all price controls to agricultural products, the reduction and harmonization of trade tariffs, privatization of state owned enterprises. The government has also made decentralization of power from the Addis based central government to the autonomous regions and nationalities that were believed to accelerate the policy shift from the previous ones to agricultural development, which was not actually endorsed during this period. But the period TGE was characterized by unstable political environments full of suspicion and mistrust over the EPRDF led ruling (Daniel Ayalew, and et.al, 1999). It can therefore be said that main agenda was the rehabilitation type of development thinking and that the development policy in this period was not just fully materialized for the fact that the government was confronted with complexity of challenges from the internal environments that were discussed above. The external policy environment during this period can be generally regarded as cool in response to the structural and policy adjustments made by the country until the constitution of Ethiopia was fully endorsed in 1994. This was a remarkable condition for the endorsement of the Agricultural Development Led Industrialization (ADLI) strategy. (EPRDF,1995) 2.4. The National Development Policy and the Five-Year Development Plan (1995-1999) In the fiscal year of 1995 the establishment of the first federal government structure in the country, it was then possible to attract the attention of the western developed nations. The development policy was well recognized in this period and it was successful enough to become one of the African nations which were nominated for the Sasakawa Global 2000 Agricultural Extension Intervention. Although this extension model was introduced to the country at a pilot level in late 1993, it was widely adopted in all the regions. Significant production increments were registered as a result of this extension system through the supply of inputs such as improved seed, fertilizer, pesticides etc. The approach was heavily criticized for its blanket approach with out giving due consideration to variability in biophysical conditions such as ecology, soils, moisture condition, fertility, topography, altitude, etc. and socioeconomic conditions such as wealth, labor, social setting, food habit, cultur e, etc. More over it was recognized by some scholars and research institutions that landraces, that have been suitable for erratic and unpredictable areas, were endangered by the replacement of single varieties introduced by the SG2000 extension system (MUC, 1996). The way the development policies during this period relate or differ from the international development thinking can be seen from the discussion made by the odi published Rethinking Rural Development (odi Briefing Paper, 2002). Accordingly the development policies during the TGE remarkably relate to the policy environments in the developed world back to the 1950s, where a model based on small farm development has been dominate. On the other hand the attempt to address rural development policy differs from the then international development context in that the budget priorities given to maintain the balance between productive sectors (agriculture manufacturing, etc) and social sectors (road infrastructure, health, education, etc.) was not compromised. The development policy emphasized the SG2000 extension system through the adoption of new technology including improve seeds and fertilizer. Towards the end of this period the macroeconomic policy of ADLI was supplemented by new policies for the sector development programs (SDP) that include education, health, HIV/AIDS and other important sectors (EU Country Strategy Paper, 2002). The other development strategy adopted with in the context of ADLI by the government of Ethiopia in 1996 was the National Food Security Strategy. Following to the adoption of this strategy the National food security Program was established in 1998 by targeting food insecurity in four regions. The implementation of these programs was interrupted by the boarder conflict that occurred with Eritrea in the same year. 2.5. The Poverty Reduction Strategy (PRS) and the Second Five Year Development Plan (2000-2004) The overall objective of this strategy was to encourage the external resource/capital inflow and to increase aggregate output level (IPRSP, 2000). It can be said that the Ethiopian government have took an initiative to prepare the IPRSP soon after the end of the Ethio-Eriteria border war look like to the Marshall plan prepared for the period of 1948-1952 as discussed in Singer (singer, 1989). This is meant for the rehabilitation and reconstruction of the European countries that were heavily destructed by e World War II. On the other hand the government has adopted poverty reduction as the core objective for development by arguing that economic growth as the principal, but not the only means to the development of Ethiopian economy. This thinking is quite similar to the combination of the Neo-Classical Economic Theory that existed in the 1980s and the New Development Theory (Todaro, 1987) in that it tries to address four important issues: the sources of economic growth and the potential for growth in the future, the mechanisms and conditions by which economic growth translates into poverty reduction, the initial effect of poverty and inequality on the sustained and rapid economic growth, and the links among economic growth, income distribution and pover

Why Was the Byzantine Empire Able to Expand to the East in the Late Ninth and Tenth Centuries?

Why was the Byzantine Empire able to expand to the east in the late ninth and tenth centuries? In the seventh and eighth century the Byzantine Empire was overwhelmed by Arab attacks resulting in the loss of Syria, Egypt and North Africa. The swift loss of the Empire’s lands and the continuous Arab sieges on Constantinople appeared to be signs of the end of the Byzantine Empire. In the late ninth and tenth centuries however this had changed, surprisingly within these centuries the Byzantine Empire experienced a period of revival.It was a period of increased trade and prosperity, a revival of the Empire’s economy. The Byzantine’s military had begun a process of transformation through new military tactics and reorganisation which made it a formidable fighting force. Simultaneously as these changes occurred, the Abbasid Caliphate had weakened significantly; a slave revolt and political divisions resulted in the split of the Abbasid Caliphate into three smaller Caliph ates. The combined factors resulted in the expansion of the Byzantine Empire in the east in the late ninth and tenth centuries.The most significant cause for this expansion was the army, specifically the use of new tactics and the reorganisation of the Byzantine army. The revival of the Byzantine economy was important as the increased trade and prosperity allowed greater taxation which could then be spent on the army for better weaponry and heavy Cavalry divisions. The revival of the economy is a contributing factor however it is subordinate to the army which was crucial. This is because the military success was stimulated to a greater degree by leadership and improved tactics rather than weaponry which was influenced by the revival of the economy.Without the introduction of new tactics and the reorganisation of the Byzantine army; the Byzantine Empire would not have been as successful in the expansion in the east. The decline and the splitting of the Abbasid Caliphate were contribu ting factors as the emerging Hamdanid Caliphate was weaker than its predecessor making it more exposable to attacks. This did not however mean the complete collapse of the Abbasid Caliphate. Its successor the Hamdanid Caliphate was still powerful, therefore it was the army reforms and new tactics which were the most significant reason in allowing the Byzantine to defeat the Arabs and make ains in the east. The seventh and eighth centuries were periods characterised by the ‘Themes’. These were military districts with their own military governor and individual militia to defend each province in response to the new Arab threat. In the ninth and tenth centuries there was a shift in this policy. There was greater need for a military force for offensive assaults rather than defensive purposes. This resulted in the creation of the Tagmata, a paid, disciplined and highly trained army.The Byzantine army â€Å"evolved into a much more offensive tactical structure the main causes being the need to operate effectively on campaigns which demanded more than the seasonally available theme armies. † The shift from regional militias to a professional and well-disciplined army was crucial for the Byzantine Empires expansion in the east. It gave the Empire the ability to launch offensive campaigns; thereby allowing the Empire to make gains in the east which would not have been possible using the thematic militias as they were not suited to such warfare.The introduction of new tactics and the reorganisation of the Byzantine army was a fundamental factor in the expansion in the east during the ninth and tenth centuries. Generals could utilise field manuals which produced â€Å"a flexible yet hard hitting force at their disposal that could respond appropriately to a range of different situations. † These field manuals also produced military drills to better prepare and improve the overall quality of their soldiers. The ‘De Velitatione’ is one example of these field manuals it states: There is no other possible way†¦for you to prepare for warfare except by first exercising and training the army under you command. You must accustom them to, and train them in, the handling of weapons and get them to endure bitter and wearisome tasks and labours. † The use of field manuals ultimately improved the quality of the commanders and the soldiers which he controlled. This produced a professional and disciplined Byzantine army which could launch attacks in the east; compared to the themed militias. The restructuring of the Byzantine army was important for increasing its ferocity and effectiveness in battle.There was a greater emphasis on the use of heavily armoured cavalry called the Kataphraktoi in the Byzantine army. They were required to have â€Å"iron helmets heavily reinforced so as to cover their faces †¦ so that only their eyes appear. They should also wear leg guards. They must have sturdy horses covered in armour †¦ of pieces of felt and boiled leather fastened together down to the knees so that nothing of the horse’s body appears except its eyes and nostrils. † The Kataphraktoi were the â€Å"elite strike force† within the army . The use of heavily armoured cavalry increased the destructive force of the Byzantine army when attacking.The reorganisation and new military tactics of the Byzantine army were important but this was assisted greatly by skilled leadership. In the ninth and tenth century the army benefited from strong leadership which was imperative for further expansion. The Emperor Nikephorous and the Emperor John I Tzimiskes are examples of excellent leaders. John I Tzimiskes appointed commanders who were â€Å"known for their skill and experience in military matters. † This was crucial as commanders who had experience and were skilful would be more able in battle; increasing the likelihood of victory in the east.Nikephorous is described as outstripping â€Å"every man of his generation for wisdom and intelligence. † Nikephorous understood the importance of a paid, highly-trained and equipped army. John Skylitzes notes that Nikephorous imposed additional taxes and even requisitioned supplies so that his army could be well paid and ready for campaign . This is vital as a paid and well supplied army will have greater morale for battle. The reform and the restructuring of the Byzantine army as well as its strong leadership was a decisive factor.The focus of the Byzantine military shifted from the thematic militias to a highly trained and disciplined army capable of defeating the Arabs on numerous occasions; including the capture of Crete in 961 and the siege of Tarsos in 965. The revival of the Byzantine economy is an important factor in the Empire’s ability to expand east in the late ninth and tenth century. A professional, large standing army would require a thriving economy to pay for it and in the ninth century â€Å"two-thirds† of state expenditure was spent on defence and the army .Constantinople was a major port for trade linking Europe to Asia. The Byzantine Empire produced valuable, high quality goods such as Byzantine Silk which was traded as far as modern England. There was a six-fold increase in the minting of bronze coins which is â€Å"evidence of a rise in trade. † The rise in trade within the Byzantine Empire increased the government’s resources as it benefited from higher tax revenue from imports and exports. Increased tax revenue resulted in greater military expenditure; providing the military equipment for the army which made it so effective in battle.This can be illustrated by the fact that although â€Å"average pay increase of some 62 per cent† and the rise in the army payroll of â€Å"140 per cent†, while the government still ran a surplus . The revival of the Byzantine economy was important, as it helped to finance and pay for the army yet this is subordinate to the reform of the Byzantine army. The revival of the economy allowed greater financing of the army for weapons and heavy cavalry. This is only a contributing factor to the Byzantine Military gains in the East.Greater emphasis of the Byzantine successes should be placed on the leadership, the reorganisation of the army and the use of new tactics; which caused the shift from the thematic militias to a professional army. The decline of the Abbasid Empire was a significant reason for the expansion of the Byzantine Empire in the east in the late ninth and tenth century. When the Byzantine Empire was experiencing a period of economic revival, the Abbasid Empire was experiencing economic decline. The richest area of the Abbasid Empire was Iraq and the â€Å"government was dependent on the revenue. The tax revenue of the Abbasid Empire was crucial for paying its army which had made the Arabs formidable. The Zanj rebellion of 869-883 was a serious slave r ebellion in south Iraq that â€Å"threatened the very survival of the caliphate and the struggle against them was a war to the death. † The Zanj rebellion was supressed, but the economic consequences were catastrophic for the Abbasid Empire. The slave farming and â€Å"large scale reclamation of land was never begun again and it seems unlikely that the city of Basra ever fully recovered. This rebellion caused the tax revenue of the Abbasid Empire to fall substantially in the long term from 100 million dirhams to 30 million dirhams by the beginning of the tenth century . The economic decline caused the Abbasid Empire to become increasingly unable to pay the salaries of its soldiers triggering instability, compared to the Byzantine Army which was paid regularly. The economic decline produced a â€Å"period when caliphs succeeded one another with bewildering speed: four different rulers being proclaimed and accepted as caliphs, of whom at least three were subsequently killed b y assassination or rebellion. The Abbasid Empire could no longer finance a large army as it had done in the seventh and eighth centuries and it was this inability to pay its soldiers that caused instability in the governing of the Empire. Ultimately the economic pressure caused the Abbasid Empire to split in the tenth century. In 929 the Independent Umayyad Caliphate in Spain was established and in 969 the Shiite Fatamids seized Egypt. What remained of the Abbasid Empire, closest to the Byzantine Empire was the new Hamdanid Empire. This had significantly less tax revenue and resources at its disposal which meant less revenue to spend on its army.Consequently the Hamdanid Empire was far weaker than its predecessor, making it easier for the Byzantine Empire to expand in the east in a period of economic revival and military reform. The decline of the Abbasid Empire caused the new Arab caliphate to be more susceptible to Byzantine attacks however it was the reform of the army which was the decisive factor for expansion in the east. Economic decline may have weakened the Abbasids ability to pay its army which caused discontent, yet it was still in a reasonably strong position at the beginning of the tenth century.The death of the Caliph Al Muktafi in 908 marks â€Å"the high point of the Abbasid revival. Not only were Syria and Egypt subdued but the treasury was full and the caliph left 15 million dinars. The army seems to have been effective and firmly under the control of the caliph and his civilian administrators. † The Abbassid Empire did not split until much later in the tenth century yet the Byzantine Empire was still able to inflict defeats including the battle of Lalakaon in 868 and at the Battle of Bathys Ryax in 872. Therefore the underlining factor which allowed the Byzantine Empire to expand to the east was its own army reforms.Even with the split of the Abbassid Empire and although the Hamdanid Empire was significantly weaker, it was still able to launch successful offensives against the Byzantine Empire. In 956 Saif al Daulah had â€Å"penetrated deeply into the Byzantine frontier region, caused a great deal of damage and dislocation to the local population and the military command, totally outmanoeuvred his enemy, outwitted them in a short, sharp field action, and returned safely laden with booty. † This emphasises that the Arabs were not weakened to such an extent where they could be easily beaten.It also highlighted consequences when the Byzantine commanders â€Å"failed to follow the strategy. † In the ninth and tenth centuries the Byzantine Empire was able to make gains in the east. This was a result of a period of Byzantine revival and the Abbasid Empires decline. The economic revival of the Byzantine Empire was beneficial as there was greater trade which increased tax revenue which in turn paid for the army. The Abbasid Empires economic decline in the long term caused the eventual split of the empire making it much weaker and open to Byzantine attacks.The most fundamental factor was the reform of the army, the use of new tactics and the reorganisation of the Byzantine military. The shift from thematic militias to a disciplined and highly trained army using heavy cavalry was crucial in the expansion in the east. Bibliography HALDON, J. , ‘Byzantium at War’, in The Fall of Constantinople: The Ottoman Conquest of Byzantium. Tempus, 2007. HALDON, J. , The Byzantine Wars. Tempus, 2001. HOURANI, A, A. History of the Arab Peoples. Warner Books 2009. KENNEDY, H. , The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates. The Islamic Near East from the Sixth to the Eleventh Century.Pearson Education, 1986. LEO THE DEACON, The History of Leo the Deacon: Byzantine Military Expansion in the Tenth Century, trans. A. -M. Talbot and D. Sullivan. Dumbarton Oaks, 2005. LUTTWAK, E. N. , The Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire. Harvard University Press, 2009. Nikephoros II Phokas, Praecepta Milit aria in E. McGeer, Sowing the Dragon’s Teeth: Byzantine Warfare in the Tenth Century. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1995. SKYLITZES, John, A Synopsis of Byzantine History, 811-1057. Cambridge University Press, 2010. TREADGOLD, W. , The Byzantine Revival, 780-842. Stanford University, 1988.