The National Development Policies Of Ethiopia Economics Essay

The National Development Policies Of Ethiopia Economics Essay The main purpose of this paper is to review the national agricultural development policies of Ethiopia during the reign of the Imperial, Derg and EPRDF led government and the predominant trends of international field of development thinking pursued (similarities and differences among) in the period of post 1974 to 2004. Ethiopia is one of the poorest nations on earth. From its 77 million people over 80 percent depend on subsistence agriculture and more than 40% live below the absolute poverty line, (CSA, 2007). The country has remained to be one of the tragic places where the worst cases of famine and drought and man made problems such as extended civil war and degradations of natural resources have been observed (EC project proposal 1998). However, the country has a good resource potential for economic development. In response to these socio- economic situations, various development policies and strategies have been brought in to practice by the successive governments that ruled the country which had in most of the cases ended up with bare minimum impacts in reversing the prevailed development bottlenecks of the country. Thus a good part of the poor performance is explained by policy failures of the past regimes generally and the derg regime in particular (EEA, 1999/2000) as sited by (Alemayehu, G.2007). Thus, after the collapse of the military regime in May 1991, the EPRDF led government adopted various development policy reforms and structural adjustments that included liberalization of markets, decentralization of central government authorities to regions, woredas and designed agriculture development led industrialization strategies. Similarly, at the later stages of the period (2002), the government pinpointed poverty reduction as its crucial development objective which is in consonance wit h international directions and commitments. In what follows this paper tries to review development policies of the up to the current regime in Ethiopia.2. Trends and Development Policy Environment Before and after 1991Â  [1]Â   2.1 Development Policies up to 1974 The imperial government of Haileselasie, was the first government to exercise different development policies as Ethiopia is first African state to attempt economic development planning (Georgi. G. 1981). But the plans determined only general trends and likely development rates as they gave an extremely generalized allocation to particular sectors of the economy as of 1960s (Haile H., 1995). During this time three five-year plans were prepared for the development of the economy with different targets and area of priorities. They were: The first five year plan (1957-62) The second five year plan (1963-67) The Third five year plan (1968-73) 2.1.1. First five year plan (1957-62)Â  [2]Â   This plan had some targets on the agricultural sector. According to the evaluations of the plan targets that was made in the second five year plan, its impact on the agricultural sector was negligible since emphasis during this plan period was on infrastructure and social transformation (raising the level of education and the training of technical personnel) for the implementation of the five year program. No need to bring about fundamental changes in present methods of (peasant) production and stuck to the kind of tools now used(Dejene (IEG 1957),pg 45 Donors policy of this period was biased in favour of urbanization vis-Ã  -vis rural development. the world bank for example, by far the largest single source of development assistance to Ethiopia in recent years, allocated 85% of its total loans to modern roads during the 1950-59 period, and nothing to the agricultural sector(world Bank 1985). 2.1.2. Second five-year plan (1963-67)Â  [3]Â   Mainly the priority focus was given to industry (manufacturing), minerals and electric power development, but, unlike the first five year plan, some attention was given to agriculture. In this plan, quantitative targets for the production of agricultural marketable products like cereals, cotton, cattle, and coffee; and for the rate of growth of agriculture were set. To achieve the production targets set in the plan three main approaches were outlined: Execution of land reform, introduction of tools implements and machinery as well as elementary training of the producers so as to raise productivity, per capita income and consumption so as to transform the subsistence economy into a monetized economy. The organization of farmers cooperatives The organization of commercial farms based on mechanization IEG (1962). However, in the second five-year plan agriculture was anticipated to grow at a rate of 2.4 percent, but it was said to have grown at a rate of 1.9 only, It was only 42.2 percent of the investment target that was actually full filled because of which much of the development programs were not achieved, The land reform policy was completely ignored, a fact which basically accounted for the failure and above all, there was lack of progress in policy measures and organizational programs, which were essential for the success of the plan. Because of all these, the agricultural sector could not develop as much as it was anticipated in the plan. 2.1.3. The third five-year plan (1968 -73)Â  [4]Â   This time exhibited a marked departure from the previous plans. It recognized the importance of the agricultural sector and charted out a relatively clear and well articulated agricultural development strategy. The plan argued that modernization of peasant subsistence agriculture in all areas of the country simultaneously is hardly possible, but no time should be lost in making a start in strategically selected areas in which good results can soon be seen. This being the strategy, two main approaches for the development of Ethiopia agriculture were indicated in the third five-year plan. These were the package program and the development of large-scale commercial farms: The Package Program The package program followed the policy of concentrating development efforts in a given area so as to bring the required changes in agriculture. The practice was to be limited to specific areas since the modernization of peasant subsistence farms in all areas of the country simultaneously was assumed that it would lead to the dilution of efforts and scarce resources. In accordance with this, the implementation of the program was started in strategically selected areas where good results were expected in a relatively short period of time. At first the package program took the form of a Comprehensive Package Program (CPP), and later the Minimum Package Program followed. The CPP aimed at achieving maximum result by focusing on specific high potential areas such as Chilalo, Wollaita, Ada District, Tahtay Adyabo, Hadegti and Humera and established agricultural development units for each of them. This program had the following objectives (Tesfai 1975:41) To increase the income of low income small holder farmers and tenants and narrow the prevailing income disparities in the rural areas; To achieve economic and social development; To enhance local participation in development; To increase employment opportunities; and To stress on research, training, and transferability. The objectives were supposed to be achieved through The provision of extension services; i.e., spreading innovations and organizing demonstration fields to farmers; The establishment of marketing organizations aiming at selling production fairly in comparison to the cost of production; Sale of inputs through marketing organizations which would make high yielding seeds and fertilizers available to the farmers; The provision of credit facilities at a reasonable rate of interest so that the farmers could be able to purchase the new supplies; and Promoting improved water supply system and expansion of education. Health and nutritional studies were to be established In general, the CPP has resulted in the increase of incomes of peasants and tenants in the project areas. The increases in incomes were, however, directly related to the size of the land holdings and thus it resulted in growing differentiation among the peasantry. This and its huge resource requirements led to the reevaluation of it adoption of what is known as the minimum package program. The Minimum Package Program (MPP) The comprehensive package projects were found too costly to be duplicated in other parts of the country. It was thus decided to launch a scheme which was thought to be less costly per farmer. Thus, in 1972 the minimum package program (MPP) involving only those minimum services considered critical for rural development (mainly fertilizer and credit) started to be implemented along all-weather roads. The MPP was envisaged to reduce the cost of developing the agricultural sector that in comparison to the CPP a much wider coverage could be attained. Tentative programs were made for the establishment of about ten projects in selected high response areas each year for thirteen year. According to the program; By 1985 it was estimated that one million families or about 20 percent of the total would be reached The MPP was designed to cover 440 woredas out of the 550 woredas of the country and this was to cover about 70 pre cent of the agricultural population For the implementation of MPP, the Extension and Project Implementation Department (EPID) was established To achieve the objectives, the diffusion of a few proved methods and innovations including improved seeds, fertilizers and farm implements as widely as possible was envisaged to reach the small farmers in various parts of the country. However, due to shortages of manpower, improved seeds and fertilizers, the MPP was not able to achieve its objective of coverage of wider areas and the cost of the MPP was not as low as it was envisaged. landless and semi-landless rural population. As a result of these, agricultural production did not increase as much as anticipated was not increased and the standard of living of the majority did not improve. In fact the programs demonstrated that rural development policy based on feudal land holding arrangements would tend to worsen the conditions of the low-income target population. The Development of Large Scale Commercial Farms The objectives in establishing large-scale commercial farms were to achieve rapid gains in output both to domestic consumption and the availability of surpluses for investment, to get an increase in agricultural exports or substitution for imports, to create new employment opportunities this is because of the fact that such farms require big investment which was not available from internal sources, the implementation of the strategy necessitated a heavy dependence on foreign capital. To attract foreign investment a number of incentives were provided including: Exemption from income tax (tax holiday) for five years for investments of Br. 200,000 and above; Exemption from customs duty; and Remittance of profits and salaries in hard currency. As a result, a number of large-scale commercial farms, mainly owned by foreigners, such as the Wonji Sugar Enterprise, the Setit Humera Plantation, and the Tendaho Plantation were quickly established. But due to misguided incentives, capital dependent operations and outflow capital the large farms did not live up to the expectations of the country. At the end of the second five years plan the industry First argument of the 1950s was being challenged theoretically as post independent Africas aspiration for a rapid industrialization process become increasingly frustrated (Johnston,M et.al 1961) and the major donors made a significant shift in their aid policies in favor of rural development vis-Ã  -vis urbanization and construction of infrastructure. In an attempt to realize this change of policy, donors subjected to Ethiopian government to strong pressure foreign assistance agencies, particularly the World Bank (IBRD) and American organizations, advised Ethiopia to give high priority to the agricultural sector and recommended the package approach concentrating on the more promising regions. This idea also supported by FAO (Nekby 1971:9) The third five-year plan largely followed and coincided with the strategy of what has been known as the Green Revolution (1960s-70s) and which had its own success story in raising agricultural production tremendously in (e.g., India, Pakistan, and other Asian countries).However, it could not minimize the income gap (in fact it is believed to have increased it) and benefits were not fairly distributed (many areas were not included in the program). 2.2 Development Policies during the Derg Regime (1974-1991) It is generally acknowledged that the pre-1975 land tenure system in Ethiopia was one of the most complex in the world and had not been thoroughly studied (Cohen and Weintraub, 1975; Gilkes, 1975; Dessalegn, 1984; Dejene, 1999) as sited by (FAO, 2003). After the 1975 land reform by the Derge has been considered by many as a radical measure that has abolished tenant landlord relationships in Ethiopia. In order to implement the Proclamation, peasant associations were established at various levels. Following the land reform proclamation, another decree that was knows as Peasant Associations Organization and Consolidation Proclamation No. 71/1975 was made. This was followed by the All Ethiopia peasant Association Proclamation No 130/1977. University and high school students were dispatched to rural areas to help the implementation of the land reform. 2.2.1. Agricultural Development Strategy Proclamation No. 31/1005 was not about agricultural production. It was about radically changing the tenure system that existed in the country. The agricultural development strategy of the Derg period was what was known as socialist transformation of agriculture; that of transforming agriculture along socialist lines. This was to be implemented through the establishment and consolidation of state farms and producers cooperatives. Thus producers cooperatives and state farms became the overwhelming priority of the government and its implementation was supported by various proclamations and decrees. Implementation of this policy resulted in the existence of two main types of economic structures in agriculture; namely, The small peasant sub sector represented by the overwhelmingly large number of small farmers; and The socialist sub sector represented by the producers cooperatives and state farms. The small peasant Farms In countries like Ethiopia peasant farms have a relatively good productivity record. Although they employ traditional technology and hardly use modern inputs, their crop-yields are often comparatively high, as they make more efficient use of productive resources than cooperatives or state farms. However small scale agriculture is often considered an obstacle to long-term industrial development and the creation of more mechanized frames. Faced with the choice between a smallholder strategy and a socialist approach, based on collective ownership, group and state farming and governmental control of the rural economy, the government chose the latter. The peasant farms continued to be dominant in Ethiopia even at the height of collectivization year in 1987 by cultivating 94% of the total farmland in Ethiopia. Nevertheless, government policy towards small farmers was discriminatory in that it favored the socialist sub sector. Government policy pertaining tax, modern inputs, credit, pricing policies, and extension services almost completely ignored the small peasants in favour of cooperatives. Quota have been set for every peasant association to sell a given amount of their produce to the Agricultural Marketing Corporation (AMC) at prices fixed by the AMC which were substantially lower than the open market prices and even lower than the prices fixed for cooperatives and state farms. In situation where peasants could not meet the quota, there were incidences where farmers had to buy from the market at higher prices and sell to the AMC at extremely low prices. In spite of all these, however, the smallholders were more successful at absorbing labour, raising yield and increasing income than producer cooperatives and state farms were. Small farmers were resistant to be collectivized, but the government adamantly pushed forward to strengthen cooperatives unsuccessfully. Apart from other concomitant factors, the disappointing performance of the agricultural sector during the Derg period can be attributed to agricultural policies favoring the socialist strategy as opposed to a smallholder approach. The Socialist Sub Sector Producers Cooperatives The Directive for the establishment of producers cooperatives was issued in June 1979. Accordingly, an agricultural producers cooperative was defined as an economic organization of farmers which is established through the gradual transformation of individually owned means of production in to common ownership based on the will and common interest of the farmers. The Directive for the establishment of cooperatives was based on the following principles: The principle of voluntarism. This principle indicates that cooperatives shall be established on the free will of those to be cooperativezed. The principle of gradualism. According to this, the development of cooperatives shall proceed from the simpler type to the more advanced types of cooperatives. The principle of all round state assistance. The government is expected to provide all embracing assistance to the establishment and consolidation of cooperatives. In practice, the principle of voluntarism was violated. In many cases the establishment of cooperatives was conducted by force as opposed to the principle of voluntary entry. As for the gradualism, the directives provided for a gradual progress of cooperatives from simple to advanced types. Cooperatives would start in the form of malba, a type of cooperative where members pool their land together (except their backyard) but keep their production implements and animals privately; they would then proceed to welba, where land, production implements and animals become communal property and a small plot is kept as a backyard. Weland was a kind of higher cooperative made by a number of malbas and/or welbas. With regard to all round state assistance, the government gave priority to cooperatives at the expense of smallholder peasants. Once they were established, Privileges not offered to peasant cultivators, or even to state farms were given to cooperatives. They paid less per tax head than individual peasants and modern inputs like fertilizer, pesticides, etc. were provided to them at subsidized prices and bank interest rates were comparatively lower. They were also given priority on extension services and had access to additional labor from peasant and youth association members. With all these however, the process of collectivization was still very much at an embryonic stage and in the eve of total collapse. Producers cooperatives were tilling 2 percent of the total farmland in 1987. The marketed surplus of cooperatives and individual farms were also about equal in that the average that both were selling was about 20 percent of their harvest, and the rest was consumed at home (68 per cent) while 12 percent was reserved as next seasons seed. However, the cooperativization drive ended in complete collapse largely because of the lack of farmers willingness. Good evidence is what happened when the government was forced by circumstances to issue the Mixed Economic Policy Reform of March 1990. Although the government intended to reorganize and strengthen them, over 95 percent of the producers cooperatives disintegrated with in three months after the declaration of the policy reform. State Farms State farms are farming enterprise that are owned, managed and undertaken by the government. Most state farms were privately owned commercial operations before 1975. According to the March 1975 land reform proclamation all large-scale farms shall be organized, as state farms, and the government shall administer these farms in any manner found it fit. In addition to these, many state farms were also established during the Derg period. The chief aims of state farms were to help alleviate the countries food problems, Contribute to export earning and employment generation. However their performance had been very disappointing due to the following main reasons. Management inefficiency: Lack of appropriate management in the sate farms resulted in misutilization of resources. Highly centralized management system curtailed the exercise of managerial autonomy at farm levels. Problems of Planning and Implementation: Farms were not given the right of preparing their own plans. Plans were prepared at enterprise or corporation level, and each farm was ordered to implement the plan, which may not reflect the objective conditions in the farm. The establishment of state farms was not conducted on the basis of proper study and analysis. Inadequate Controlling Systems: State farms, as in other public firms, had little managerial freedom to plan and to control. Even the cost-benefit analysis was worked at higher levels and each farm is evaluated base on the grand balance sheet of the enterprise or corporation. Disguised Unemployment: Every farm was over populated. There exist unnecessary labour imposing additional costs to the farms. Unnecessary structures were formulated deliberately to absorb more employees. Resettlement and Villagaization Resettlement Prior to the 1974 revolution, resettlement was started out on a small scale as a result of individual initiatives by local governors and aid agencies with a variety of motives and objectives. By the time of the revolution a mere 7,000 household heads had been established in 20 settlement sites at a cost of 8 million US dollars. Resettlement was seen as a means of addressing a range of issues. From an ecological perspective it reduced population pressure in the highlands; from an economic standpoint it was believed that resettlement could help to increase productivity and make use of under-utilized fertile lands; and from a social point of view resettlement was seen as a way of providing land to those with out it, to settle paternalists, and remove unwanted urban unemployment. Resettlement continued at a small scale in the first decade of the military rule so that in total some 46,000 households, comprising 150,000 people had been resettled on 88 sites in 11 regions. Villagization Villagization is a process by which rural households were moved from scattered dwellings into nucleated villages as part of a governmental attempt to modernize rural life and agricultural production patterns. Villagization in Ethiopia began as a regional operation in Bale during the Ethio-somalia war in 1977/78. One of the main objectives of the program at that time was to guarantee the safety of the local inhabitants from invading Somali troops during the war with Somalia. Six years later in December 1984, the prorgamme was extended to the adjusting region of Hararghe, again chiefly for security reasons. In June 1986, a National Villagization Coordination Committee was set up to undertake villagization work as an economic policy to improve rural life. By mid-1987, the government claimed that 12 million people (about one third of the rural population) were villagized. The highest number of newly established villages were built in Shewa and Hararghe. The objectives of this program were the creation of a conducive situation that would facilitate the dissemination of improved agricultural inputs and services. However, this program, like the other programs, was not successful because it was not done on the basis of the participation of the people to be villagized and they were largely unwilling to be villagized. Moreover, it was poorly planned and implemented. The above development policy reforms of the Dergs Military government was a result of the ties made with the East Socialist states such as Russia and other east European countries that had an ideology of command economy system. 2.3. Policy reform during the early transitional government (1991-1994) The EPRDF overthrew the Derg regime in May 1991 after a 17-year prolonged civil war in all parts of the country, leading to the formation of Transitional Government of Ethiopia (TGE). The 1991 economic policy document of the TGE declared collectivization and villagization as undesirable and liberalized both agricultural markets. The overriding objective of the government was given as attaining fast broad based economic development. an economic reform program was initated, which took the form of structural adjustment program(SAP) nder the auspices of the world bank and IMF. the reform included the removal of substantial taxation of agriculture, market liberalization and devaluation. The fertilizer market was liberalized, creating a multi channel distribution system. (Alemayehu and Berhanu (1999),pg.52). The TGE which was replaced by the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) in August 1995 through public election. Since 1992 the TGE was successful to favor market driven development policy by undergoing important structural adjustments and reforms (European Union, 2002). These included; the abolishment of all price controls to agricultural products, the reduction and harmonization of trade tariffs, privatization of state owned enterprises. The government has also made decentralization of power from the Addis based central government to the autonomous regions and nationalities that were believed to accelerate the policy shift from the previous ones to agricultural development, which was not actually endorsed during this period. But the period TGE was characterized by unstable political environments full of suspicion and mistrust over the EPRDF led ruling (Daniel Ayalew, and et.al, 1999). It can therefore be said that main agenda was the rehabilitation type of development thinking and that the development policy in this period was not just fully materialized for the fact that the government was confronted with complexity of challenges from the internal environments that were discussed above. The external policy environment during this period can be generally regarded as cool in response to the structural and policy adjustments made by the country until the constitution of Ethiopia was fully endorsed in 1994. This was a remarkable condition for the endorsement of the Agricultural Development Led Industrialization (ADLI) strategy. (EPRDF,1995) 2.4. The National Development Policy and the Five-Year Development Plan (1995-1999) In the fiscal year of 1995 the establishment of the first federal government structure in the country, it was then possible to attract the attention of the western developed nations. The development policy was well recognized in this period and it was successful enough to become one of the African nations which were nominated for the Sasakawa Global 2000 Agricultural Extension Intervention. Although this extension model was introduced to the country at a pilot level in late 1993, it was widely adopted in all the regions. Significant production increments were registered as a result of this extension system through the supply of inputs such as improved seed, fertilizer, pesticides etc. The approach was heavily criticized for its blanket approach with out giving due consideration to variability in biophysical conditions such as ecology, soils, moisture condition, fertility, topography, altitude, etc. and socioeconomic conditions such as wealth, labor, social setting, food habit, cultur e, etc. More over it was recognized by some scholars and research institutions that landraces, that have been suitable for erratic and unpredictable areas, were endangered by the replacement of single varieties introduced by the SG2000 extension system (MUC, 1996). The way the development policies during this period relate or differ from the international development thinking can be seen from the discussion made by the odi published Rethinking Rural Development (odi Briefing Paper, 2002). Accordingly the development policies during the TGE remarkably relate to the policy environments in the developed world back to the 1950s, where a model based on small farm development has been dominate. On the other hand the attempt to address rural development policy differs from the then international development context in that the budget priorities given to maintain the balance between productive sectors (agriculture manufacturing, etc) and social sectors (road infrastructure, health, education, etc.) was not compromised. The development policy emphasized the SG2000 extension system through the adoption of new technology including improve seeds and fertilizer. Towards the end of this period the macroeconomic policy of ADLI was supplemented by new policies for the sector development programs (SDP) that include education, health, HIV/AIDS and other important sectors (EU Country Strategy Paper, 2002). The other development strategy adopted with in the context of ADLI by the government of Ethiopia in 1996 was the National Food Security Strategy. Following to the adoption of this strategy the National food security Program was established in 1998 by targeting food insecurity in four regions. The implementation of these programs was interrupted by the boarder conflict that occurred with Eritrea in the same year. 2.5. The Poverty Reduction Strategy (PRS) and the Second Five Year Development Plan (2000-2004) The overall objective of this strategy was to encourage the external resource/capital inflow and to increase aggregate output level (IPRSP, 2000). It can be said that the Ethiopian government have took an initiative to prepare the IPRSP soon after the end of the Ethio-Eriteria border war look like to the Marshall plan prepared for the period of 1948-1952 as discussed in Singer (singer, 1989). This is meant for the rehabilitation and reconstruction of the European countries that were heavily destructed by e World War II. On the other hand the government has adopted poverty reduction as the core objective for development by arguing that economic growth as the principal, but not the only means to the development of Ethiopian economy. This thinking is quite similar to the combination of the Neo-Classical Economic Theory that existed in the 1980s and the New Development Theory (Todaro, 1987) in that it tries to address four important issues: the sources of economic growth and the potential for growth in the future, the mechanisms and conditions by which economic growth translates into poverty reduction, the initial effect of poverty and inequality on the sustained and rapid economic growth, and the links among economic growth, income distribution and pover

Why Was the Byzantine Empire Able to Expand to the East in the Late Ninth and Tenth Centuries?

Why was the Byzantine Empire able to expand to the east in the late ninth and tenth centuries? In the seventh and eighth century the Byzantine Empire was overwhelmed by Arab attacks resulting in the loss of Syria, Egypt and North Africa. The swift loss of the Empire’s lands and the continuous Arab sieges on Constantinople appeared to be signs of the end of the Byzantine Empire. In the late ninth and tenth centuries however this had changed, surprisingly within these centuries the Byzantine Empire experienced a period of revival.It was a period of increased trade and prosperity, a revival of the Empire’s economy. The Byzantine’s military had begun a process of transformation through new military tactics and reorganisation which made it a formidable fighting force. Simultaneously as these changes occurred, the Abbasid Caliphate had weakened significantly; a slave revolt and political divisions resulted in the split of the Abbasid Caliphate into three smaller Caliph ates. The combined factors resulted in the expansion of the Byzantine Empire in the east in the late ninth and tenth centuries.The most significant cause for this expansion was the army, specifically the use of new tactics and the reorganisation of the Byzantine army. The revival of the Byzantine economy was important as the increased trade and prosperity allowed greater taxation which could then be spent on the army for better weaponry and heavy Cavalry divisions. The revival of the economy is a contributing factor however it is subordinate to the army which was crucial. This is because the military success was stimulated to a greater degree by leadership and improved tactics rather than weaponry which was influenced by the revival of the economy.Without the introduction of new tactics and the reorganisation of the Byzantine army; the Byzantine Empire would not have been as successful in the expansion in the east. The decline and the splitting of the Abbasid Caliphate were contribu ting factors as the emerging Hamdanid Caliphate was weaker than its predecessor making it more exposable to attacks. This did not however mean the complete collapse of the Abbasid Caliphate. Its successor the Hamdanid Caliphate was still powerful, therefore it was the army reforms and new tactics which were the most significant reason in allowing the Byzantine to defeat the Arabs and make ains in the east. The seventh and eighth centuries were periods characterised by the ‘Themes’. These were military districts with their own military governor and individual militia to defend each province in response to the new Arab threat. In the ninth and tenth centuries there was a shift in this policy. There was greater need for a military force for offensive assaults rather than defensive purposes. This resulted in the creation of the Tagmata, a paid, disciplined and highly trained army.The Byzantine army â€Å"evolved into a much more offensive tactical structure the main causes being the need to operate effectively on campaigns which demanded more than the seasonally available theme armies. † The shift from regional militias to a professional and well-disciplined army was crucial for the Byzantine Empires expansion in the east. It gave the Empire the ability to launch offensive campaigns; thereby allowing the Empire to make gains in the east which would not have been possible using the thematic militias as they were not suited to such warfare.The introduction of new tactics and the reorganisation of the Byzantine army was a fundamental factor in the expansion in the east during the ninth and tenth centuries. Generals could utilise field manuals which produced â€Å"a flexible yet hard hitting force at their disposal that could respond appropriately to a range of different situations. † These field manuals also produced military drills to better prepare and improve the overall quality of their soldiers. The ‘De Velitatione’ is one example of these field manuals it states: There is no other possible way†¦for you to prepare for warfare except by first exercising and training the army under you command. You must accustom them to, and train them in, the handling of weapons and get them to endure bitter and wearisome tasks and labours. † The use of field manuals ultimately improved the quality of the commanders and the soldiers which he controlled. This produced a professional and disciplined Byzantine army which could launch attacks in the east; compared to the themed militias. The restructuring of the Byzantine army was important for increasing its ferocity and effectiveness in battle.There was a greater emphasis on the use of heavily armoured cavalry called the Kataphraktoi in the Byzantine army. They were required to have â€Å"iron helmets heavily reinforced so as to cover their faces †¦ so that only their eyes appear. They should also wear leg guards. They must have sturdy horses covered in armour †¦ of pieces of felt and boiled leather fastened together down to the knees so that nothing of the horse’s body appears except its eyes and nostrils. † The Kataphraktoi were the â€Å"elite strike force† within the army . The use of heavily armoured cavalry increased the destructive force of the Byzantine army when attacking.The reorganisation and new military tactics of the Byzantine army were important but this was assisted greatly by skilled leadership. In the ninth and tenth century the army benefited from strong leadership which was imperative for further expansion. The Emperor Nikephorous and the Emperor John I Tzimiskes are examples of excellent leaders. John I Tzimiskes appointed commanders who were â€Å"known for their skill and experience in military matters. † This was crucial as commanders who had experience and were skilful would be more able in battle; increasing the likelihood of victory in the east.Nikephorous is described as outstripping â€Å"every man of his generation for wisdom and intelligence. † Nikephorous understood the importance of a paid, highly-trained and equipped army. John Skylitzes notes that Nikephorous imposed additional taxes and even requisitioned supplies so that his army could be well paid and ready for campaign . This is vital as a paid and well supplied army will have greater morale for battle. The reform and the restructuring of the Byzantine army as well as its strong leadership was a decisive factor.The focus of the Byzantine military shifted from the thematic militias to a highly trained and disciplined army capable of defeating the Arabs on numerous occasions; including the capture of Crete in 961 and the siege of Tarsos in 965. The revival of the Byzantine economy is an important factor in the Empire’s ability to expand east in the late ninth and tenth century. A professional, large standing army would require a thriving economy to pay for it and in the ninth century â€Å"two-thirds† of state expenditure was spent on defence and the army .Constantinople was a major port for trade linking Europe to Asia. The Byzantine Empire produced valuable, high quality goods such as Byzantine Silk which was traded as far as modern England. There was a six-fold increase in the minting of bronze coins which is â€Å"evidence of a rise in trade. † The rise in trade within the Byzantine Empire increased the government’s resources as it benefited from higher tax revenue from imports and exports. Increased tax revenue resulted in greater military expenditure; providing the military equipment for the army which made it so effective in battle.This can be illustrated by the fact that although â€Å"average pay increase of some 62 per cent† and the rise in the army payroll of â€Å"140 per cent†, while the government still ran a surplus . The revival of the Byzantine economy was important, as it helped to finance and pay for the army yet this is subordinate to the reform of the Byzantine army. The revival of the economy allowed greater financing of the army for weapons and heavy cavalry. This is only a contributing factor to the Byzantine Military gains in the East.Greater emphasis of the Byzantine successes should be placed on the leadership, the reorganisation of the army and the use of new tactics; which caused the shift from the thematic militias to a professional army. The decline of the Abbasid Empire was a significant reason for the expansion of the Byzantine Empire in the east in the late ninth and tenth century. When the Byzantine Empire was experiencing a period of economic revival, the Abbasid Empire was experiencing economic decline. The richest area of the Abbasid Empire was Iraq and the â€Å"government was dependent on the revenue. The tax revenue of the Abbasid Empire was crucial for paying its army which had made the Arabs formidable. The Zanj rebellion of 869-883 was a serious slave r ebellion in south Iraq that â€Å"threatened the very survival of the caliphate and the struggle against them was a war to the death. † The Zanj rebellion was supressed, but the economic consequences were catastrophic for the Abbasid Empire. The slave farming and â€Å"large scale reclamation of land was never begun again and it seems unlikely that the city of Basra ever fully recovered. This rebellion caused the tax revenue of the Abbasid Empire to fall substantially in the long term from 100 million dirhams to 30 million dirhams by the beginning of the tenth century . The economic decline caused the Abbasid Empire to become increasingly unable to pay the salaries of its soldiers triggering instability, compared to the Byzantine Army which was paid regularly. The economic decline produced a â€Å"period when caliphs succeeded one another with bewildering speed: four different rulers being proclaimed and accepted as caliphs, of whom at least three were subsequently killed b y assassination or rebellion. The Abbasid Empire could no longer finance a large army as it had done in the seventh and eighth centuries and it was this inability to pay its soldiers that caused instability in the governing of the Empire. Ultimately the economic pressure caused the Abbasid Empire to split in the tenth century. In 929 the Independent Umayyad Caliphate in Spain was established and in 969 the Shiite Fatamids seized Egypt. What remained of the Abbasid Empire, closest to the Byzantine Empire was the new Hamdanid Empire. This had significantly less tax revenue and resources at its disposal which meant less revenue to spend on its army.Consequently the Hamdanid Empire was far weaker than its predecessor, making it easier for the Byzantine Empire to expand in the east in a period of economic revival and military reform. The decline of the Abbasid Empire caused the new Arab caliphate to be more susceptible to Byzantine attacks however it was the reform of the army which was the decisive factor for expansion in the east. Economic decline may have weakened the Abbasids ability to pay its army which caused discontent, yet it was still in a reasonably strong position at the beginning of the tenth century.The death of the Caliph Al Muktafi in 908 marks â€Å"the high point of the Abbasid revival. Not only were Syria and Egypt subdued but the treasury was full and the caliph left 15 million dinars. The army seems to have been effective and firmly under the control of the caliph and his civilian administrators. † The Abbassid Empire did not split until much later in the tenth century yet the Byzantine Empire was still able to inflict defeats including the battle of Lalakaon in 868 and at the Battle of Bathys Ryax in 872. Therefore the underlining factor which allowed the Byzantine Empire to expand to the east was its own army reforms.Even with the split of the Abbassid Empire and although the Hamdanid Empire was significantly weaker, it was still able to launch successful offensives against the Byzantine Empire. In 956 Saif al Daulah had â€Å"penetrated deeply into the Byzantine frontier region, caused a great deal of damage and dislocation to the local population and the military command, totally outmanoeuvred his enemy, outwitted them in a short, sharp field action, and returned safely laden with booty. † This emphasises that the Arabs were not weakened to such an extent where they could be easily beaten.It also highlighted consequences when the Byzantine commanders â€Å"failed to follow the strategy. † In the ninth and tenth centuries the Byzantine Empire was able to make gains in the east. This was a result of a period of Byzantine revival and the Abbasid Empires decline. The economic revival of the Byzantine Empire was beneficial as there was greater trade which increased tax revenue which in turn paid for the army. The Abbasid Empires economic decline in the long term caused the eventual split of the empire making it much weaker and open to Byzantine attacks.The most fundamental factor was the reform of the army, the use of new tactics and the reorganisation of the Byzantine military. The shift from thematic militias to a disciplined and highly trained army using heavy cavalry was crucial in the expansion in the east. Bibliography HALDON, J. , ‘Byzantium at War’, in The Fall of Constantinople: The Ottoman Conquest of Byzantium. Tempus, 2007. HALDON, J. , The Byzantine Wars. Tempus, 2001. HOURANI, A, A. History of the Arab Peoples. Warner Books 2009. KENNEDY, H. , The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates. The Islamic Near East from the Sixth to the Eleventh Century.Pearson Education, 1986. LEO THE DEACON, The History of Leo the Deacon: Byzantine Military Expansion in the Tenth Century, trans. A. -M. Talbot and D. Sullivan. Dumbarton Oaks, 2005. LUTTWAK, E. N. , The Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire. Harvard University Press, 2009. Nikephoros II Phokas, Praecepta Milit aria in E. McGeer, Sowing the Dragon’s Teeth: Byzantine Warfare in the Tenth Century. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1995. SKYLITZES, John, A Synopsis of Byzantine History, 811-1057. Cambridge University Press, 2010. TREADGOLD, W. , The Byzantine Revival, 780-842. Stanford University, 1988.

Ne?tled Case Study

Nestled Case study Nestled in the high country of New Zealand’s South Island is a getaway adventure playground aimed unashamedly at the world’s very wealthy. Celebrity sportspeople, Rock stars, World Leaders and Corporate Chief Executives and other world globe-trotters are the prime targets of this new tourism business developed by Lilybank Lodge. The lodge offers these exclusive niche segments the opportunity of a secluded holiday in a little known paradise. Guests, commonly under public scrutiny in their everyday lives, can escape such pressures at an idyllic retreat designed exclusively and specifically with their needs in mind. A chance meeting between a New Zealand Department of Conservation investigator and the son of the former Indonesian president marked the beginning of this speciality tourist operation. Recognising that ‘filthy rich’ people and public figures or celebrities are constantly surrounded by security and seldom have the luxury of going anywhere ‘incognito’, the New Zealander Kerry Mortimer suggested he and a friend purchase a high country station and lodge that was for sale. Mortimer believed that the facilities and their secluded and peaceful environment would make an ideal holiday haven for this elite group. Kerry Mortimer, who was by now the company’s Managing Director, developed a carefully tailored package of goods and services for the property. Architecturally designed accommodations, including a fully equipped Gymnasium and Spa Treatment & Beauty Salon, together with luxurious guest rooms were constructed and deigned by the country’s leading designers’. Although New Zealand had an international reputation for being sparsely populated and green, Mortimer knew that rich travellers frequently complained that local accommodations were below overseas standards. Since the price of these rooms was not felt to be a major barrier to this type of targeted customer, the rooms were designed as twice as big as normal hotel rooms and to a very sumptuous specification, all with breathtaking panoramic views. Ten full-time dedicated staff were taken together with four special tour guides in keeping with the anticipated class and wealth of the potential clientele(Pickton, 2005). The 2800 acres of the retreat also backed onto the South Island’s Mount Cook National Park which also offered big game reserve hunting as well as many other outdoor pursuits. Lilybank lodge therefore developed other product-line extensions. Horse trekking and riding, golfing on a nearby rural course, world class photographic lessons and sessions, helicopter rides nature walks and other activities formed part of this exclusive package. Whilst still in the early stages of operation, this retreat has already attracted a steady stream of visitors. To date the manager has relied solely on positive word of mouth, publicity and some initial PR activity. Given the social and business circles in which the target market resides he decides to employ a marketing consultant to design and implement a more planned marketing communications strategy. The report should also consider the implication already voiced by one critical observer that this project is again evidence of yet another example of local land passing into the hands of foreigners!! The MD and manager are convinced that the major markets and attention should be on International markets but is there a case for marketing some of the attraction to a more local and national market? Introduction Marketing communications can be defined as communications by means of promotion within a target audience or market. To communicate with consumers in order to persuade them to buy the company's products is by no means the only objective. To view it as being only sales-orientated is to underestimate the complexity of modern marketing communications. It is necessary to target customers in an integrated fashion to inform, persuade and remind prospective and existing consumers and customers of the firm, its products and services and how these are differentiated to appeal to and satisfy targeted needs, wants and desires of target markets. † (Kotler, 2002) Marketing communications does not entail the continuous application of tried and tested techniques, rather it is constantl y moving and dynamic, not just in terms of messages, but also medias, monies expended and changing consumer mindsets. An example of this, product placement, which involves the deliberate featuring of a product or brand in a film or television programme, was in its infancy even five years ago. Today, however, it represents a useful – if still marginal – element of the communications programme for many consumer goods organisations. Promotion is the communication arm of the marketing mix. Our hotel use various promotional approaches to communicate with target markets (the guests) and the following text will look at the general dimensions of promotion, defining promotion in the context of marketing. Next, to understand how promotion works, the text analyses the meaning and process of communication, as well as the product (our services) adoption process. The remaining of the text discusses the major types of promotional methods and the factors that influence promotion across cultures. The Promotional Mix The promotion mix, one of the four major components of the marketing mix, involves a careful blending of several elements to accomplish the organisation's specific promotion objectives. The four traditional elements are advertising, personal selling, sales promotion and public relations. Advertising The first element I will discuss is advertising, which can be defined as â€Å"any paid form of non-personal promotion transmitted through a mass-medium. † (Brassington & Petit, 2000, P. 593) â€Å"The purpose of an advertising plan is to provide the means by which appropriate messages are devised and delivered to target audiences who then act in appropriate ways. † (Fill, 2002, P. 486) Any paid form of no personal communication through the mass media about a product or service by an identified sponsor is advertising. The mass media used include magazines, direct mail, radio, television, billboards, and newspapers. This is used when the sponsor wants to communicate with a number of people who cannot be reached economically and effectively through personal means. Personal Selling Personal, face-to-face contact between a staff's representative and those people with whom the staff wants to communicate is personal selling. Non-profit organisations, political candidates, companies, and individuals use personal selling to communicate with the publics. Public Relations A further element of the promotional mix is public relations, which is defined by the Institute of Public Relations (1986) as â€Å"the deliberate, planned and sustained effort to establish and maintain mutual understanding between an organisation and its public. † Communication to correct erroneous impressions, maintain the goodwill of the hotel's many publics, and explain the hotel's goals and purposes is called public relations (PR). Unlike the other promotional mix elements, public relations are concerned primarily with people outside the target market, although it may include them. Publicity is news carried in the mass media about a hotel – its products, policies, services, personnel, or actions – at no charge to the organisation for media time and space. Unlike the other tools in the promotional mix, public relations does not require the purchase of airtime and space in media vehicles, such as T. V or magazines. And compared to the other promotional tools, public relations have higher credibility because the decision whether or not a hotel's public relations messages are delivered is not down to the hotel, but those charged with managing the media resource. Another big advantage PR has over other tools is that it has such low absolute costs(Kitchen, 2000). Within the communications programme of a hotel, public relations have two major roles to play. â€Å"These are the development and maintenance of corporate goodwill and the continuity necessary for good product support. † The first task of PR is to provide a series of cues by which the stakeholders can recognise, understand and position the hotel in such a way that it builds a strong reputation. Sales Promotion Sales promotion communicates with targeted receivers in a way that is not feasible by using other elements of the promotion mix. It involves any activity that offers an incentive to induce a desired response by staffs, intermediaries, and/or final customers/guests. Sales promotion activities add value to the service because the incentives ordinarily do not accompany the service. According to the Institute of Sales Promotion, sales promotion is â€Å"†¦ range of tactical techniques designed within a strategic marketing frameworks to add value to a product or service in order to achieve specific sales and marketing objectives. † This added value could be in the form of an inducement, (for example, price-offs, coupons, premiums, seasonal-offs) and is intended to encourage guests to act now rather than later. PR and Publicity Public Relations is perceived the most important in terms of marketing Lilybank Lodge. Journalist, media representatives and travel writ ers have a key role to play in establishing a positive profile. Also, popular sporting events, festivals, or visits by high profile celebrities or prominent politicians are excellent opportunities for eliminating the chronic negative image. Process by mass media such as TV, newspapers and films, and accounts given by friends, relatives or associates are powerful in the consumer's decision. Lilybank Lodge’s image as a tourist destination greatly depends on the PR activities of its marketers and the extent to which they can influence or manipulate tourist's perceptions of the region(Kitchen, 2003). Tourism representatives had agreed not to underestimate the negative perceptions the prospective tourist had in his/her mind and was created by mass media, newspapers and films covering the ‘trouble'. What was needed was a strategic promotion of it's tourism attractions on the part of tour operators and promotional bodies seeking to influence potential tourists. However many had their doubts. In McGuckin and Demick (2000) many doubts were rissen: One respondent suggested: â€Å"Positive advertising could never fully overcome negative editorial or media coverage(Ilchul, 2004)†. Another that: â€Å"It is difficult for us to control the negative publicity particularly that created by the media†. Lilybank Lodge ‘s objective regarding Publicity for 2003 is to create awareness of New Zealand and portray the desired images of the island. E-Marketing and the Internet The objective is the offer the consumer information about New Zealand through Internet sites, mail and email to past enquiries in order to convert interest to booking and developing banner advertising to direct consumers to micro-sites, which have special offers and a call to action. Trade Support Activity The objective is to educate and support the market trade so they can promoted New Zealand effectively. Promotions The objective is to offer information and create the intention among consumers to come and visit New Zealand. External Analysis: Threats Economic The industry faces major challenges in regaining its competitiveness in the light of reducing customer satisfaction ratings, in particular as regards delivering good value for money. There are a number of key factors influencing this problem: Social, cultural, demographic and environmental With growing concerns for environmental issues, New Zealand needs to become more aware of the problems with litter and pollution. These are the issues with lowest satisfaction levels of visitors as outlined by Failte New Zealand Visitor Attitude Surveys. The increase in competition from Eastern European countries has posed a threat by taking part of the market segment New Zealand once catered for. People are changing the way that they holiday. People are taking shorter holidays, but more often. For example, Vienna, once expensive, has reinvented itself as a reasonable conference and city break destination. In 2002, against the expectations of the industry, the number of domestic trips recorded – at 5. 8 million – represented a decrease on 2001 performance and a 10% decrease on 2000. While business trips are at a steady rate, home holidays and visiting friends and relatives is down, as the graph below illustrates. (Cornelissen, 2006) Political, Legal and Government A major decrease in NZ investment in Irish tourism poses a major threat to the industry. NZ grants, tax incentives and infrastructure supports are not as readily available as in the mid to late 1990s. Technological With the advancements in modern communication the need to travel has become less important. Telephone conferencing and the Internet are now alternatives to one on one business meetings. More affordable and efficient means of transport now allows for shorter stays, thus decreasing potential revenue for hotels. Internal Analysis: Strengths Experience With over 20 years in the business the Hotel has an established name and reputation. Recent and Proposed Investment The recent refurbishment and proposed expansion of 20 new bedrooms indicates that the hotel has capital to invest in its growth. Staff and customer loyalty A longstanding relationship with both employees and the cities business population creates a sense of security within the hotel Good relations with competition The hotel proposed to investigate running a training scheme in conjunction with other hotels in the area. This indicates that they have a good relationship with their competitors. Customer Focused The hotel has identified the need to become more customer focused and flexible in their approach to the needs of their clients. Location Having a central location within the city is a major advantage. It provides easy access for customers and suppliers. There is a larger market for the restaurant and bar facilities. Other amenities are close by. E. g. : Pharmacy, Newsagents etc. Expansion The hotel is planning to expand which shows that they are forward thinking and are not complacent when it comes to competition. Identified Weaknesses (Utilizing resources) They have identified the fact that their employees could be better utilized with some organization and planning Diverse Workforce The ages of the employees are wide ranging which enriches the company's culture and combines the experience and know how of the older generation with the enthusiasm and new ideas of the younger one. Internal Analysis: Weaknesses Lack of Skilled Workforce The Hotel has had problems with attracting receptionists and chefs with the required level of skill. High Staff turnover There is a constant problem in certain areas for retaining staff. Technology The hotel does not seem to have any computer systems in place which is to its detriment. Older staff resistant to change The fact that there are a number of older staff who have worked in the hotel for a great many years may be a problem with regards to implementing new systems. Training and Development There is currently no training for staff and a lack of foresight for future career paths within the organization. Reactionary The hotel clearly reacts to its problems as opposed to planning for unforeseen circumstances. Although they are planning for the future, they do not take into account the problems they may face. Bad planning and Utilization Employees clearly need to be better organized within the hotel. A problem like shift change times overlapping busy checkout times is something that just should not be happening in a hotel that's in operation for more than 20 years. Lack of facilities The hotel has only the basic facilities any hotel of its size would have. A huge competitive advantage is being missed out on due to the lack of innovative extras within the hotel. Transport The lack of transport at awkward hours has a significant impact on staff retention in the hotel. Situation Analysis and Preliminary Assessment This section includes a SWOT analysis of the Lilybank Lodge case study and preliminary assessments based on currently available data regarding market conditions, market segmentation, and market size. S. W. O. T. Analysis of the Lilybank Lodge case study This section reviews the strengths, weaknesses, external opportunities, and external threats (SWOT) for Lilybank Lodge in its current situation. Internal Strengths There is no ordinary rooms in the hotel †¢Quality evaluations are very good compared to competitors †¢Located a within blocks of the financial district and Inner Harbor tourist sites External Opportunities †¢Increase sales figures †¢Increase net profit Internal Weaknesses †¢Not too many amenities †¢Received little promotion both locally and nationally †¢No kitchenettes External threats â⠂¬ ¢Other hotels or units that offer similar service with the competitive price or even at the lower level †¢ Down falling economy Preliminary Assessment of Market Conditions This section records preliminary observations on the market advantages and disadvantages of an all-suite hotel. Advantages: †¢ Rooms are 500 to 800 square feet compared to traditional hotel rooms which are 300 to 400 square feet †¢Privacy †¢Business people can conduct small meetings in there hotel rooms †¢Convenient because it’s located near the business district and near tourist attractions Disadvantages: †¢ More staff needed †¢More expensive for upkeep †¢Some people don’t want such a big room †¢No big function rooms for weddings etc†¦ Market Segmentation All-suite hotels entered the hospitality market with the business traveler in mind, providing home-away-from-home comforts for long business trips and separate living and sleeping rooms to better accommodate in-room business meetings. It wasn't long, however, before the benefits to traveling families became equally apparent. Private sleeping areas for parents or for children's naptime and kitchen facilities to save money on meals as well as to accommodate children's eating patterns are among the benefits of all-suite travel for families with children. The market for Lilybank Lodge can be reasonably segmented into two categories: business travelers and leisure travelers. (Holm, 2006) †¢ Business Travelers – need hotel rooms year round, but usually emphasize weekdays (M-T). They are likely to evaluate the hotel on the following criteria: price (although not very price sensitive, they can’t afford to be too free and easy with their expenses), level of personal service provided, degree of physical luxury (rooms, restaurants, lobby, decor, extra amenities) location relative to next days usiness meetings, ambiance / atmosphere of hotel and quality of upkeep (clean and fresh). †¢ Leisure Travelers – tend to visit on weekends. They may be slightly more price sensitive than business travelers and be looking for packaged deals (special weekend rates including some meals), they will also want a location close to shops, restaurants, entertainment and attractions. If they were touring by car then on-site parking would be an issue. Preliminary Market Size Analysis In this section, a preliminary market size estimate for business travelers and leisure travelers is produced. Business travelers †¢31% of hotel occupancy, 51% with groups †¢What is happening to business travel †¢Stagnation ==> high fares and technology alternatives †¢Still need for face-to-face meetings †¢Globalization is a positive factor †¢What do business travelers want †¢ Location, service, reputation, appropriate product, price †¢ Significance of women as growth business travel market Leisure travelers †¢68% of trips, 43% of hotel stays †¢Leisure trips have been growing at twice the pace of business trips Recommendations based on assessment Lilybank Lodge has already made a good start towards a successful marketing strategy for their Baltimore Hotel. It’s going to be tough to get the hotel started due to the falling economy. The hotel needs to get a good staff. Staff is very important because they leave a lasting impression on the customers. Lilybank Lodge needs to really concentrate on customer satisfaction. If they can get customer satisfaction then they have got through half the battle. Lilybank Lodge should also concentrate on online sales. Everyone uses the Internet and that’s where he or she will find most of there traveling accommodations. Lilybank Lodge should also go to different businesses and explain to them all the amenities that they offer. They should also reevaluate their amenities because it seems by the survey that they are low in that factor. I believe the Lilybank Lodge. Suites will do just fine. Business people are traveling all the time and they definitely like idea of all suite hotels. It’s roomier, very convenient for business meeting and they have privacy which in ordinary hotels they lack that greatly. Lilybank Lodge's tourism industry needs to select the correct image for the region and communicate it to the appropriate target markets. Public relations and media management(Picktan, 2005) Conclusion In this paper communication was discussed as a vital strategic element of Lilybank Lodge's especially a new opened hotel and importance was given to integrating the various promotional tools to achieve an effective focus. The main influence for communications and other management functions must be directed by long term aims and objectives developed as part of a comprehensive strategy. References Picktan, D. and Braderick, A. (2005), Integrated Marketing Cammunicatians, Pearsan Educatian Limited, Harlaw. Katler, P. (2002), Marketing Management, 11th ed. , Prentice-Hall/Pearsan Educatian, Englewaad Cliff, NJ. Belch, G. E. and Belch, M. A. (2003), Advertising and Pramatian, 6th ed. , McGraw Hill. Fill, C. (2006) Marketing Cammunicatians, 4th ed. , Financial Times/ Prentice Hall. Kitchen, P. J. and Schultz, D. E. (2000), â€Å"A respanse ta ‘Thearetical cancept ar management fashian†, â€Å"Jaurnal af Advertising Research†, Val. 40 Na. 5, pp. 17-21. Kitchen, P. J. and Schultz, D. E. , et al. (2003), â€Å"Will agencies ever â€Å"get† IMC? †, â€Å"Eurapean Jaurnal af Marketing† Val. 38 Na 11/12. Ilchul, K. , Dangsub, H. and Schultz, D. E. , (2004), â€Å"Diffusian af IMC†, â€Å"Jaurnal af Advertising Research†. Carnelissen, P. J. , Thoger, C. , Vijn, C. , (2006) â€Å"Understanding the develapment and diffusian af integrated marketing cammunicatians†, â€Å"NRG warking paper†. Halm, A. , (2006) â€Å"Integrated marketing cammunicatian: fram tactics ta strategy†, â€Å"Carparate Cammunicatians: An Internatianal Jaurnal†, Val. 11 Na. 1, pp. 23-33.

Observations in a Public School - 1279 Words

As an observer at a public school, I noticed and learned a lot of information that will be beneficial for me in my teaching career. I observed a fifth grade class at P.S 108Q, The Captain Vincent G. Fowler School in South Ozone Park. The Captain Vincent G. Fowler School serves Pre-Kindergarten to Fifth grade, with over a thousand students and seventy -nine teachers in total. It is a very diverse school; over sixty -four percent of the Asian ethnicity. P.S. 108Q, school mission is â€Å"to inspire and support families to champion their children’s education at school, at home and in their community.† The school has a small and large playground for students to enjoy during gym activities, recess and afterschool. Being a large school it has five entrances and each grade level uses a different entrance. A classroom should always be organized and neat to help promote students learning. The classroom that I observed is very large and it has the biggest space on the fifth flo or. It has a huge closet, where students place their backpacks and hangs their jackets. Students are seated into groups of three, having a total of ten students per group. Each group consists of ten desks and ten chairs organize next to each other, allowing students or pairs to work with each other more efficiently. The classroom is very spacious and makes it safe for students to move around freely without bumping into something. As well for being spacious, the classroom is organized having sections such asShow MoreRelatedMy Observation At A Public Middle School1801 Words   |  8 PagesI conducted my observation at a public middle school in an urban setting. The class that I observed was a sixth grade self-contained class. The class was small, containing about fifteen students, the teacher and a teacher aid. The teacher taught the students English, which included writing and reading but also helped students with math. 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